2602003011
  • Open Access
  • Review

Size Matters: A Comparison of Nanoparticle Catalysts vs. Single Atom Catalysts as Applied to Engineered Systems for Catalytic Oxidation Wastewater Sterilization

  • Fengting Geng 1,   
  • Xing Xu 1,2,*

Received: 13 Jan 2026 | Revised: 29 Jan 2026 | Accepted: 06 Feb 2026 | Published: 26 Feb 2026

Abstract

Catalytic oxidation processes for engineering advanced wastewater sterilization have been well reported. Despite remarkable advancements, a systematic analysis of metal site dimensions (ranging from nanoscale clusters to single-atom configurations) for wastewater sterilization and their bactericidal properties/mechanisms remains conspicuously absent. This comprehensive review fills this critical void by rigorously examining how metallic site dimensionality governed reactive oxygen species (ROS) production in both photocatalytic and Fenton-like systems for water sterilization. The bactericidal efficacy of catalytic oxidation systems originates from size-mediated electronic configurations and geometric structures at metal active centers. Single-atom catalysts (SACs) achieve superior atomic efficiency in ROS production, while nanoparticle configurations demonstrate favorable cost-stability performance. These structural variations collectively determine microbe-catalyst contact dynamics, reactive oxygen formation, and material longevity under continuous operation, highlighting the necessity for tailored catalyst design strategies. We further culminate in highlighting enduring challenges including economic scalability and practical implementation barriers, while proposing innovative cross-disciplinary solutions incorporating machine learning (ML) methodologies. By establishing direct correlations between metal site architecture and bactericidal efficacy, this work seeks to inform the creation of advanced sustainable water purification technologies. 

References 

  • 1.

    Li, J.; Chen, X.; Li, S.; et al. Construction of a flow-through catalytic reactor employing O3–Fe/TiO2 for efficient catalytic ozonation disinfection. Catal. Sci. Technol. 2024, 14, 6351–6362. https://doi.org/10.1039/d4cy00893f.

  • 2.

    Yu, S.-Y.; Xie, Z.-H.; Wu, X.; et al. Review of advanced oxidation processes for treating hospital sewage to achieve decontamination and disinfection. Chin. Chem. Lett. 2024, 35, 108714. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cclet.2023.108714.

  • 3.

    Liu, J.; Guo, C.; Liu, Z.; et al. Simultaneous sterilization and biosensing of pathogenic bacteria via copper phthalocyanine-based COF embedded with Cu-N4 single atomic sites and silver nanoparticles. Chem. Eng. J. 2024, 494, 153139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2024.153139.

  • 4.

    Zhou, C.-S.; Wu, J.-W.; Dong, L.-L.; et al. Removal of antibiotic resistant bacteria and antibiotic resistance genes in wastewater effluent by UV-activated persulfate. J. Hazard. Mater. 2020, 388, 122070. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.122070.

  • 5.

    Ping, Q.; Yan, T.; Wang, L.; et al. Insight into using a novel ultraviolet/peracetic acid combination disinfection process to simultaneously remove antibiotics and antibiotic resistance genes in wastewater: Mechanism and comparison with conventional processes. Water Res. 2022, 210, 118019. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2021.118019.

  • 6.

    Meng, X.; Li, F.; Yi, L.; et al. Free radicals removing extracellular polymeric substances to enhance the degradation of intracellular antibiotic resistance genes in multi-resistant Pseudomonas Putida by UV/H2O2 and UV/peroxydisulfate disinfection processes. J. Hazard. Mater. 2022, 430, 128502. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.128502.

  • 7.

    Zhou, Y.; He, D.; Lei, Y.; et al. Bacterial inactivation by dichloride radical in water: Molecular-level reaction kinetics and disinfection mechanism. Water Res. 2026, 288, 124558. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2025.124558.

  • 8.

    Aßmann, E.; Greiner, T.; Richard, H.; et al. Augmentation of wastewater-based epidemiology with machine learning to support global health surveillance. Nat. Water 2025, 3, 753–763. https://doi.org/10.1038/s44221-025-00444-5.

  • 9.

    Azuma, T.; Usui, M.; Hayashi, T. Inactivation of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in hospital wastewater by ozone-based advanced water treatment processes. Sci. Total Environ. 2024, 906, 167432. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.167432.

  • 10.

    Wang, D.; Liu, Y.; Wang, Q.; et al. Activation of Peroxydisulfate via photothermal synergistic strategy for wastewater treatment: Efficiency and mechanism. J. Hazard. Mater. 2022, 427, 129224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.129224.

  • 11.

    Jiang, L.; Li, J.; Kang, D.; et al. Unraveling Biological Ammonium Oxidation in Toxic Petrochemical Wastewater Treatment: A Metagenomic Exploration with Practical Implications. ACS EST Eng. 2025, 5, 2100–2107. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsestengg.5c00188.

  • 12.

    Wang, W.-L.; Jing, Z.-B.; Zhang, Y.-L.; et al. Assessing the Chemical-Free Oxidation of Trace Organic Chemicals by VUV/UV as an Alternative to Conventional UV/H2O2. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2024, 58, 7113–7123. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.3c08414.

  • 13.

    Wang, Y.; Wu, Q.-Y.; Lee, M.-Y.; et al. Efficient Electrocatalytic Hydrodechlorination and Detoxification of Chlorophenols by Palladium–Palladium Oxide Heterostructure. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2024, 58, 20739–20750. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.4c07923.

  • 14.

    Kan, H.; Chou, X.; Li, M.; et al. Enhancing the chemoselective hydrogenation of o-chloronitrobenzene over nanoporous Ni/NiAl3 catalysts. Appl. Surf. Sci. 2024, 649, 159120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2023.159120.

  • 15.

    Zhao, X.; Zhou, X.; Xia, Y.; et al. Realizing the high loading amount of active Cu on Al2O3 to boost its CO catalytic oxidation. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 2024, 673, 669–678. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2024.06.130.

  • 16.

    Pan, X.; Ji, J.; Zhang, N.; et al. Research progress of graphene-based nanomaterials for the environmental remediation. Chin. Chem. Lett. 2020, 31, 1462–1473. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cclet.2019.10.002.

  • 17.

    Jing, Z.-B.; Wang, W.-L.; Nong, Y.-J.; et al. Fluorescence analysis for water characterization: Measurement processes, influencing factors, and data analysis. Water Reuse 2022, 13, 33–50. https://doi.org/10.2166/wrd.2022.065.

  • 18.

    Han, W.-R.; Wang, W.-L.; Qiao, T.-J.; et al. Ozone micro-bubble aeration using the ceramic ultrafiltration membrane with superior oxidation performance for 2,4-D elimination. Water Res. 2023, 237, 119952. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2023.119952.

  • 19.

    Ouyang, W.-Y.; Wang, W.-L.; Zhang, Y.-L.; et al. VUV/UV oxidation performance for the elimination of recalcitrant aldehydes in water and its variation along the light-path. Water Res. 2023, 228, 119390. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2022.119390.

  • 20.

    Xiao, G.; Zhang, X.; Zhang, W.; et al. Visible-light-mediated synergistic photocatalytic antimicrobial effects and mechanism of Ag-nanoparticles@chitosan–TiO2 organic–inorganic composites for water disinfection. Appl. Catal. B Environ. 2015, 170, 255–262. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcatb.2015.01.042.

  • 21.

    Li, G.; Nie, X.; Chen, J.; et al. Enhanced visible-light-driven photocatalytic inactivation of Escherichia coli using g-C3N4/TiO2 hybrid photocatalyst synthesized using a hydrothermal-calcination approach. Water Res. 2015, 86, 17–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2015.05.053.

  • 22.

    Rtimi, S.; Giannakis, S.; Sanjines, R.; et al. Insight on the photocatalytic bacterial inactivation by co-sputtered TiO2–Cu in aerobic and anaerobic conditions. Appl. Catal. B Environ. 2016, 182, 277–285. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcatb.2015.09.041.

  • 23.

    Mangayayam, M.; Kiwi, J.; Giannakis, S.; et al. FeOx magnetization enhancing E. coli inactivation by orders of magnitude on Ag-TiO2 nanotubes under sunlight. Appl. Catal. B Environ. 2017, 202, 438–445. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcatb.2016.09.064.

  • 24.

    Lu, Y.-W.; Wang, C.; Joshi, N.; et al. MoS2 nanoflowers-activated peroxydisulfate oxidation for rapid and efficient water disinfection. Water Cycle 2022, 3, 44–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watcyc.2022.04.001.

  • 25.

    Li, Z.; Hou, Y.; Shen, Y.; et al. Oxygen vacancy-dependent synergistic disinfection of antibiotic-resistant bacteria by BiOBr nanoflower induced H2O2 activation. Water Res. 2024, 267, 122524. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2024.122524.

  • 26.

    Pei, W.; Hao, C.; Zhou, J.; et al. Peroxymonosulfate activation via non-contact electron transfer process (NCETP) for efficient organic pollutant removal. Water Res. 2026, 289, 124796. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2025.124796.

  • 27.

    Ni, R.; Opoku, K.N.; Li, X.; et al. Recent advance in utilization of advanced composite photothermal materials for water disinfection: Synthesis, mechanism, and application. Chin. Chem. Lett. 2025, 36, 110813. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cclet.2024.110813.

  • 28.

    Li, X.; Wan, Y.; Deng, F.; et al. Advances in Z-scheme and S-scheme heterojunctions for photocatalytic and photoelectrocatalytic H2O2 production. Chin. Chem. Lett. 2025, 36, 111418. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cclet.2025.111418.

  • 29.

    Fang, Y.; Gao, H.; Cheng, K.; et al. An overview of photothermal materials for solar-driven interfacial evaporation. Chin. Chem. Lett. 2025, 36, 109925. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cclet.2024.109925.

  • 30.

    Ünsür, A.M.; Nejatpour, M.; Dükkancı, M.; et al. Green approach for perfluorocarboxylic acids (PFCAs) removal with density functional theory (DFT) insights: Peanut-shell biomass-based carbon quantum dots (PCQDs) coupled with TiO2 photocatalyst. J. Hazard. Mater. 2025, 495, 139060. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2025.139060.

  • 31.

    Fouad, M.; Gar Alalm, M.; El-Etriby, H.K.; et al. Visible-light-driven photocatalytic disinfection of raw surface waters (300–5000 CFU/mL) using reusable coated Ru/WO3/ZrO2. J. Hazard. Mater. 2021, 402, 123514. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.123514.

  • 32.

    Mao, Q.; Wei, K.; Li, T.; et al. S-scheme WO3₋x/MoS2 heterojunction photocatalysis coupling with micro-nano bubbles technology for enhanced antibacterial disinfection in water. Environ. Res. 2025, 286, 122966. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2025.122966.

  • 33.

    Souza, B.A.; Giannini, M.J.S.M.; Yonashiro, M.; et al. Application of bioinspired W/WO3 electrodes electrochemically constructed on microbial biofilm for the disinfection of dialysate contaminated by Candida parapsilosis. J. Photochem. Photobiol. 2023, 16, 100196. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpap.2023.100196.

  • 34.

    Zhang, H.; Wang, Z.; Zhang, J.; et al. Metal-sulfide-based heterojunction photocatalysts: Principles, impact, applications, and in-situ characterization. Chin. J. Catal. 2023, 49, 42–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1872-2067(23)64444-4.

  • 35.

    Aslam, A.; Nadeem, N.; Balgabayeva, B.; et al. Synergy in metal oxide/metal sulfide binary composites for photocatalysis: Mechanisms, applications, and emerging trends. Inorg. Chem. Commun. 2025, 181, 115191. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.inoche.2025.115191.

  • 36.

    Liu, L.; Shen, Z.; Wang, C. Highly efficient visible-light-driven photocatalytic disinfection of flowing bioaerosol using mono/multilayer MXene based catalyst. Chem. Eng. J. 2023, 457, 141327. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2023.141327.

  • 37.

    Bhattacharjee, B.; Ahmaruzzaman, M.; Djellabi, R.; et al. Advances in 2D MXenes-based materials for water purification and disinfection: Synthesis approaches and photocatalytic mechanistic pathways. J. Environ. Manag. 2022, 324, 116387. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2022.116387.

  • 38.

    Li, J.; Yang, Z.; Wang, C.; et al. Rapid electron transfer via hetero-interface engineering of 2D MOF anchored Ti3C2 MXene nanosheet for enhanced photocatalytic disinfection. Appl. Catal. B: Environ. 2023, 339, 123163. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcatb.2023.123163.

  • 39.

    Yan, Y.; Kuang, W.; Shi, L.; et al. Carbon quantum dot-decorated TiO2 for fast and sustainable antibacterial properties under visible-light. J. Alloys Compd. 2019, 777, 234–243. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2018.10.191.

  • 40.

    Huo, Z.-Y.; Winter, L.R.; Wang, X.-X.; et al. Synergistic Nanowire-Enhanced Electroporation and Electrochlorination for Highly Efficient Water Disinfection. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2022, 56, 10925–10934. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.2c01793.

  • 41.

    Rao, S.; Sun, Z.; Liu, Q.; et al. Engineering Atomic Ag1–N6 Sites with Enhanced Performance of Eradication Drug-Resistant Bacteria over Visible-Light-Driven Antibacterial Membrane. ACS Nano 2024, 18, 7074–7083. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.3c10765.

  • 42.

    Liu, L.-L.; Chen, F.; Wei, T.-T.; et al. Atomically Dispersed Magnesium Centers on Carbon Nitride for H2O2 Production and Synergistic in Situ Water Disinfection. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2025, 59, 21726–21737. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.5c05354.

  • 43.

    Gupta, R.; Boruah, B.; Modak, J.M.; et al. Kinet. Study Z-Scheme C3N4/CuWO4 photocatalyst towards solar light inactivation of mixed populated bacteria. J. Photochem. Photobiol. A: Chem. 2019, 372, 108–121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jphotochem.2018.08.035.

  • 44.

    Li, C.; Cai, Y.; Wu, J.; et al. High-concentration single-atom Zn-doped porous tubular g-C3N4: A superior photocatalyst for tetracycline hydrochloride degradation and bacterial sterilization. Rare Met. 2025, 44, 4756–4766. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12598-25-03279-x.

  • 45.

    Yang, L.; Yang, H.; Yin, S.; et al. Fe Single-Atom Catalyst for Efficient and Rapid Fenton-Like Degradation of Organics and Disinfection against Bacteria. Small 2022, 18, 2104941. https://doi.org/10.1002/smll.202104941.

  • 46.

    Tian, Q.; Xu, X.; Duan, X. Application-Oriented Advanced Oxidation Processes: Research Priorities for Upscaling and Deployment. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2025, 59, 16823–16826. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.5c09384.

  • 47.

    Tian, Q.; Chang, J.; Peng, X.; et al. Iron Single-Atom Based Double-Reaction-Center Catalysis Triggers Internal-Driven and External-Driven Pathways for Green Fenton-Like Chemistry. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2025, 64, e202503995. https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.202503995.

  • 48.

    Tian, Q.; Jiang, Y.; Duan, X.; et al. Low-peroxide-consumption fenton-like systems: The future of advanced oxidation processes. Water Res. 2025, 268, 122621. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2024.122621.

  • 49.

    Yan, M.; Sun, J.; Chen, Y.; et al. Artificial manganese nanozyme for nonradical activation of periodate toward pH-universal water decontamination. Chem Catal. 2025, 5, 101299. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.checat.2025.101299.

  • 50.

    Wu, J.; Xiong, L.; Zhao, B.; et al. Densely Populated Single Atom Catalysts. Small Methods 2020, 4, 1900540. https://doi.org/10.1002/smtd.201900540.

  • 51.

    Ma, X.; Xu, Z.; Zhang, L.; et al. Nano zero-valent iron-based fiber electrode for efficient electro-Fenton treatment of pharmaceutical wastewater: Mechanism of degradation and sterilization. Chem. Eng. J. 2023, 475, 146049. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2023.146049.

  • 52.

    Dong, L.; Cui, S.; Sun, X.; et al. Copper sulfides (Cu₇S4) nanowires with Ag anchored in N-doped carbon layers optimize interfacial charge transfer for rapid water sterilization. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 2024, 654, 1209–1219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2023.10.140.

  • 53.

    Zhang, X.; Yang, Z.; Zhang, J.; et al. Piezotronic effect enhanced catalytic sterilization: Mechanisms and practical applications. Nano Energy 2024, 131, 110346. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nanoen.2024.110346.

  • 54.

    Liu, J.; Huang, Y.; Song, X.; et al. Ni-Co synergistic regulation of catalyst surface charge density for efficient DNA base degradation in water. J. Water Process Eng. 2025, 71, 107313. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwpe.2025.107313.

  • 55.

    Shen, Y.; Huang, J.; Qiao, J.; et al. Metal-based activation of periodate as an advanced oxidation process for water decontamination: A critical review. Chem. Eng. J. 2025, 513, 162949. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2025.162949.

  • 56.

    Miao, J.; Geng, W.; Alvarez, P.J.J.; et al. 2D N-Doped Porous Carbon Derived from Polydopamine-Coated Graphitic Carbon Nitride for Efficient Nonradical Activation of Peroxymonosulfate. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2020, 54, 8473–8481. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.0c03207.

  • 57.

    Liu, Z.; Gao, W.; Liu, L.; et al. Spin polarization induced by atomic strain of MBene promotes the ·O2– production for groundwater disinfection. Nat. Commun. 2025, 16, 197. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-55626-8.

  • 58.

    Wu, T.; Liu, B.; Liu, C.; et al. Solar-driven efficient heterogeneous subminute water disinfection nanosystem assembled with fingerprint MoS2. Nat. Water 2023, 1, 462–470. https://doi.org/10.1038/s44221-023-00079-4.

  • 59.

    Montemore, M.M.; van Spronsen, M.A.; Madix, R.J.; et al. O2 Activation by Metal Surfaces: Implications for Bonding and Reactivity on Heterogeneous Catalysts. Chem. Rev. 2018, 118, 2816–2862. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemrev.7b00217.

  • 60.

    Peng, J.; Sokolov, S.; Hernangómez-Pérez, D.; et al. Atomically resolved single-molecule triplet quenching. Science 2021, 373, 452–456. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abh1155.

  • 61.

    Chen, S.; Ding, R.; Li, B.; et al. A robust aerogel incorporated with phthalocyanine-based porous organic polymers for highly efficient gold extraction. Sep. Purif. Technol. 2025, 354, 129451. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2024.129451.

  • 62.

    Wang, Q.; Li, F.; Yang, H.; et al. Simultaneous self-supply of H2O2 and GSH-depleted intracellular oxidative stress for enhanced photodynamic/photothermal/chemodynamic therapy. Chem. Commun. 2022, 58, 8536–8539. https://doi.org/10.1039/D2CC02961H.

  • 63.

    Wang, C.; Zhao, X.; Hu, M.; et al. Unraveling Hydrocarbon Pool Boosted Propane Aromatization on Gallium/ZSM-5 Zeolite by Solid-State Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2021, 60, 23630–23634. https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.202111111.

  • 64.

    Milenova, K.; Avramova, I.; Aleksieva, K. Investigation of NiO/Pd/Al2O3, CuO/Pd/Al2O3 and CoO/Pd/Al2O3 as catalysts for ozone decomposition and as photocatalysts. Catal. Today 2025, 460, 115439. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cattod.2025.115439.

  • 65.

    Lian, Z.; Gao, F.; Xiao, H.; et al. Photo-self-Fenton Reaction Mediated by Atomically Dispersed Ag−Co Photocatalysts toward Efficient Degradation of Organic Pollutants. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2024, 63, e202318927. https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.202318927.

  • 66.

    Luo, D.; Xiao, H.; Yang, Y.; et al. Photo-Self-Fenton Reaction Mediated by Silver Single Atom and Cluster Photocatalysts for Highly Selective Generation of Singlet Oxygen Toward Efficient Organic Wastewater Treatment. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2025, 64, e202504028. https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.202504028.

  • 67.

    Wang, J.; Zhang, J.; Li, Y.; et al. Silver single atoms and nanoparticles on floatable monolithic photocatalysts for synergistic solar water disinfection. Nat. Commun. 2025, 16, 981. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-025-56339-2.

  • 68.

    He, F.; Lu, Y.; Jiang, G.; et al. Unveiling the dual charge modulation of built-in electric field in metal-free photocatalysts for efficient photo-Fenton-like reaction. Appl. Catal. B Environ. 2024, 341, 123307. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcatb.2023.123307.

  • 69.

    Zhu, X.; Zong, H.; Pérez, C.J.V.; et al. Supercharged CO2 Photothermal Catalytic Methanation: High Conversion. Rate, and Selectivity. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2023, 62, e202218694. https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.202218694.

  • 70.

    Cong, S.; Li, X.; You, J.; et al. Structural regulation and photocatalytic antibacterial performance of TiO2, carbon dots and their nanocomposites: A review. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 2025, 700, 138482. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2025.138482.

  • 71.

    Jiang, X.; Hu, J.; Qin, Y.; et al. Novel dual bactericidal mechanism of TiO2 ‘solution’ during photocatalytic sterilization. Appl. Surf. Sci. 2025, 688, 162409. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2025.162409.

  • 72.

    Rao, S.; Zhi, C.; Wang, X.; et al. In situ synthesis of graphitic carbon nitride nanosheet/Ti3C2Tx MXene/TiO2 Z-scheme heterojunctions boosting charge transfer for full-spectrum driven photocatalytic sterilization. J. Colloid Interface Sci. 2024, 659, 594–602. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcis.2024.01.005.

  • 73.

    Wang, X.; Wang, J.; Liu, S.; et al. Sterilization mechanism and nanotoxicity of visible light-driven defective carbon nitride and UV-excited TiO2. J. Hazard. Mater. 2024, 461, 132109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.132109.

  • 74.

    Ge, X.; Ren, C.; Ding, Y.; et al. Micro/nano-structured TiO2 surface with dual-functional antibacterial effects for biomedical applications. Bioact. Mater. 2019, 4, 346–357. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bioactmat.2019.10.006.

  • 75.

    Lee, J.H.; Kang, M.; Choung, S.-J.; et al. The preparation of TiO2 nanometer photocatalyst film by a hydrothermal method and its sterilization performance for Giardia lamblia. Water Res. 2004, 38, 713–719. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2003.10.011.

  • 76.

    Jung, H.; Kim, D.B.; Gweon, B.; et al. Enhanced inactivation of bacterial spores by atmospheric pressure plasma with catalyst TiO2. Appl. Catal. B Environ. 2010, 93, 212–216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcatb.2009.09.031.

  • 77.

    Liu, Q.; Zhan, F.; Luo, H.; et al. Mechanism of interface engineering for ultrahigh piezo-photoelectric catalytic coupling effect of BaTiO3@TiO2 microflowers. Appl. Catal. B Environ. 2022, 318, 121817. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcatb.2022.121817.

  • 78.

    Lu, Z.; Gao, J.; Rao, S.; et al. A multifunctional membrane based on TiO2/PCN-224 heterojunction with synergistic photocatalytic-photothermal activity under visible-light irradiation. Appl. Catal. B Environ. 2024, 342, 123374. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcatb.2023.123374.

  • 79.

    Jin, C.; Sun, D.; Sun, Z.; et al. Interfacial engineering of Ni-phytate and Ti3C2Tx MXene-sensitized TiO2 toward enhanced sterilization efficacy under 808 nm NIR light irradiation. Appl. Catal. B Environ. 2023, 330, 122613. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcatb.2023.122613.

  • 80.

    Qu, Y.; Li, X.; Zhang, H.; et al. Controllable synthesis of a sponge-like Z-scheme N,S-CQDs/Bi2MoO6@TiO2 film with enhanced photocatalytic and antimicrobial activity under visible/NIR light irradiation. J. Hazard. Mater. 2022, 429, 128310. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.128310.

  • 81.

    Rosales, S.; Medina, O.E.; Garzon, N.; et al. Systematic review of carbon quantum dots (CQD): Definition, synthesis, applications and perspectives. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2025, 219, 115854. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2025.115854.

  • 82.

    Zhuang, C.; Chang, Y.; Li, W.; et al. Light-Induced Variation of Lithium Coordination Environment in g-C3N4 Nanosheet for Highly Efficient Oxygen Reduction Reactions. ACS Nano 2024, 18, 5206–5217. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.4c00217.

  • 83.

    Yang, X.; Sheng, L.; Ye, Y.; et al. Insights into the disinfection enhancement of homojunction g-C3N4 photocatalyst from charge transfer regulation and cell-surface attachment. Chem. Eng. J. 2023, 474, 145771. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2023.145771.

  • 84.

    Kumar, R.; Raizada, P.; Verma, N.; et al. Recent advances on water disinfection using bismuth based modified photocatalysts: Strategies and challenges. J. Clean. Prod. 2021, 297, 126617. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.126617.

  • 85.

    Ma, S.; Yu, X.; Li, W.; et al. Bismuth-based photocatalysts for pollutant degradation and bacterial disinfection in sewage system: Classification, modification and mechanism. Environ. Res. 2025, 264, 120297. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2024.120297.

  • 86.

    Liu, J.; Goetjen, T.A.; Wang, Q.; et al. MOF-enabled confinement and related effects for chemical catalyst presentation and utilization. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2022, 51, 1045–1097. https://doi.org/10.1039/D1CS00968K.

  • 87.

    Sharma, V.K.; Ma, X.; Zboril, R. Single atom catalyst-mediated generation of reactive species in water treatment. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2023, 52, 7673–7686. https://doi.org/10.1039/D3CS00627A.

  • 88.

    Shang, Y.; Xu, X.; Gao, B.; et al. Single-atom catalysis in advanced oxidation processes for environmental remediation. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2021, 50, 5281–5322. https://doi.org/10.1039/D0CS01032D.

  • 89.

    Li, R.; Zhao, J.; Liu, B.; et al. Atomic Distance Engineering in Metal Catalysts to Regulate Catalytic Performance. Adv. Mater. 2024, 36, 2308653. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202308653.

  • 90.

    Ling, C.; Liu, X.; Li, H.; et al. Atomic-Layered Cu₅ Nanoclusters on FeS2 with Dual Catalytic Sites for Efficient and Selective H2O2 Activation. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2022, 61, e202200670. https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.202200670.

  • 91.

    Ma, W.; Sun, M.; Huang, D.; et al. Catalytic Membrane with Copper Single-Atom Catalysts for Effective Hydrogen Peroxide Activation and Pollutant Destruction. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2022, 56, 8733–8745. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.1c08937.

  • 92.

    Xu, X.; Li, X.; Lu, W.; et al. Collective Effect in a Multicomponent Ensemble Combining Single Atoms and Nanoparticles for Efficient and Durable Oxygen Reduction. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2024, 63, e202400765. https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.202400765.

  • 93.

    Lu, H.; Li, X.; Li, F.; et al. Construction of single-atom Ag embedded O, K co-doped g-C3N4 with enhanced photocatalytic efficiency for tetracycline degradation and Escherichia coli disinfection under visible light. J. Mol. Liq. 2022, 352, 118655. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molliq.2022.118655.

  • 94.

    Li, F.; Liu, K.; Bao, Y.; et al. Molecular level removal of antibiotic resistant bacteria and genes: A review of interfacial chemical in advanced oxidation processes. Water Res. 2024, 254, 121373. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2024.121373.

  • 95.

    Shi, T.; Hou, X.; Guo, S.; et al. Nanohole-boosted electron transport between nanomaterials and bacteria as a concept for nano–bio interactions. Nat. Commun. 2021, 12, 493. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-20547-9.

  • 96.

    Wang, J.; Chu, L.; Wojnárovits, L.; et al. Occurrence and fate of antibiotics, antibiotic resistant genes (ARGs) and antibiotic resistant bacteria (ARB) in municipal wastewater treatment plant: An overview. Sci. Total Environ. 2020, 744, 140997. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.140997.

  • 97.

    Qi, W.; Tang, X.; Huang, Y.; et al. Electron Transfer Expressway from Peroxydisulfate to O2 Mediated by Diatomic Sites Accelerating 1O2 Production for Disinfection. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2025, 59, 15670–15679. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.5c01975.

  • 98.

    Zhang, H.; Duan, Y.; Elimelech, M.; et al. Scalable catalytic nanofiltration membranes for advanced water treatment. Nat. Water 2025, 3, 1038–1047. https://doi.org/10.1038/s44221-025-00483-y.

  • 99.

    Yang, Y.; Li, H.; Fu, W.; et al. Large-scale deployment of single-atom catalysts via cross-scale confinement in ceramic membranes for advanced water treatment. Nat. Water 2025, 3, 1281–1290. https://doi.org/10.1038/s44221-025-00512-w.

  • 100.

    Li, M.; Jiang, J.; Zhu, Z.; et al. Engineering Pd atom membrane-nanoparticle on carbon nitride for efficient photocatalytic water disinfection via in situ generation and activation of H2O2. Chem. Eng. J. 2025, 509, 161423. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2025.161423.

  • 101.

    Duan, X.; Li, Y.; Zhao, J.; et al. Machine Learning Accelerated Discovery of Entropy-Stabilized Oxide Catalysts for Catalytic Oxidation. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2025, 147, 651–661. https://doi.org/10.1021/jacs.4c12838.

  • 102.

    Li, Q.; Xu, W.; Wang, W.; et al. Machine learning-driven screening and performance prediction of metal-organic frameworks for photocatalytic removal of malodorous methyl mercaptan. J. Hazard. Mater. Adv. 2025, 19, 100772. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hazadv.2025.100772.

  • 103.

    Gao, W.; Xu, Y.; Chang, X.; et al. Machine Learning-Driven Global Optimization of Single-Atom Catalyst-Mediated Advanced Oxidation Processes. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2025, 59, 24044–24054. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.5c07237.

  • 104.

    Zhao, C.-C.; Xing, S.; Fu, C.; et al. Mapping Antibiotic Photocatalytic Transformation and Resistance Risks with a DFT-Informed Machine Learning Workflow. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2026, e20124. https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.202520124.

  • 105.

    Wang, C.; Wu, Y.; Xue, Y.; et al. Combinatorial discovery of antibacterials via a feature-fusion based machine learning workflow. Chem. Sci. 2024, 15, 6044–6052. https://doi.org/10.1039/D3SC06441G.

Share this article:
How to Cite
Geng, F.; Xu, X. Size Matters: A Comparison of Nanoparticle Catalysts vs. Single Atom Catalysts as Applied to Engineered Systems for Catalytic Oxidation Wastewater Sterilization. Environmental and Microbial Technology 2026, 1 (1), 9. https://doi.org/10.53941/emt.2026.100009.
RIS
BibTex
Copyright & License
article copyright Image
Copyright (c) 2026 by the authors.