Synthetic dyes represent some of the most enduring and toxic contaminants in industrial wastewater, attributable to their intricate molecular configurations, elevated chemical stability, and resistance to standard treatment methods. Biochar-based adsorbents have emerged as effective materials for dye removal due to their adjustable surface chemistry, porous architecture, and sustainable manufacture from biomass resources. This study offers a thorough and mechanism-focused synthesis of recent progress in the development and utilization of biochar adsorbents for the treatment of dye-contaminated wastewater. The analysis combines biomass feedstock selection, thermochemical synthesis pathways, surface modification techniques, adsorption mechanisms, and operational performance to create a cohesive framework connecting biochar design with adsorption behavior. The documented adsorption capabilities for dye removal utilizing biochar-based adsorbents vary significantly, often ranging from 10 mg g−1 to over 1000 mg g−1, contingent upon feedstock composition, thermochemical conversion conditions, and surface modification techniques. The reported adsorption capacities for different dye classes are rigorously analyzed concerning experimental conditions such as solution pH, dye concentration, adsorbent dosage, and wastewater matrix composition, which substantially affect adsorption performance and hinder direct comparisons among studies. The paper additionally assesses predominant adsorption mechanisms, including electrostatic attraction, π-π interactions, hydrogen bonding, and pore-filling processes, emphasizing the influence of biochar surface characteristics and solution chemistry on the significance of these interactions. The discourse also addresses regeneration efficiency, operational stability, and the constraints related to scaling biochar-based adsorption systems for actual wastewater treatment. The findings underscore that the optimal design of biochar adsorbents necessitates a comprehensive assessment of feedstock properties, synthesis parameters, and ambient factors influencing adsorption mechanisms. Future research must include pilot-scale validation, sustainable regeneration methodologies, and assessment under actual wastewater circumstances to enable the translation of laboratory-scale adsorption studies into effective water treatment technology.



