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Review of g-C3N4-Based Photocatalytic Systems: Design Strategies toward Sustainable Hydrogen Production

  • Yuvaraj M. Hunge 1,*,†,   
  • Anuja A. Yadav 2,†,   
  • Sutripto Majumder  3,   
  • Abdel Hamid I. Mourad  4,   
  • Akira Fujishima  1,5,   
  • Chiaki Terashima  1,6

Received: 26 Aug 2025 | Revised: 12 Nov 2025 | Accepted: 13 Nov 2025 | Published: 19 Nov 2025

Abstract

With growing concerns over the global energy crisis and environmental degradation, there is an urgent push toward cleaner and more sustainable energy sources. Among the promising solutions, photocatalytic water splitting has emerged as an eco-friendly method for hydrogen production by harnessing sunlight. However, traditional photocatalysts like TiO2, ZnO, and CdS face notable limitations, such as poor visible light absorption, fast electron-hole recombination, and stability issues under long-term use. Graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4), a metal-free semiconductor with a two-dimensional structure, has gained attention due to its favorable band gap, good thermal and chemical stability, and ease of synthesis. Still, its photocatalytic performance in its pure form remains limited, mainly due to low charge separation efficiency and insufficient surface activity. To overcome these drawbacks, researchers have explored a variety of modification strategies such as tuning the morphology, doping with elements, coupling with co-catalysts, and building heterojunctions. These approaches have shown great potential in improving light absorption, charge carrier mobility, and the overall hydrogen evolution efficiency. This review highlights recent progress in developing and modifying g-C3N4 based materials for photocatalytic hydrogen production. It explores how different structural and electronic modifications impact performance and delves into the mechanisms behind these improvements. Challenges such as long-term stability, cost-effectiveness, and scalability are discussed, along with potential strategies to address them. Looking ahead, more focus is needed on large-scale synthesis, durability in real-world conditions, and integrating these materials into practical systems to truly unlock the potential of g-C3N4 in sustainable hydrogen production.

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Hunge, Y. M.; Yadav, A. A.; Majumder , S.; Mourad , A. H. I.; Fujishima , A.; Terashima , C. Review of g-C3N4-Based Photocatalytic Systems: Design Strategies toward Sustainable Hydrogen Production. Energy, Water and Air Catalysis Research 2025, 1 (1), 2.
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