RSET/
Articles/
2603003499
  • Open Access
  • Article

Comprehensive Design of Solar Photovoltaic Circular Economy for Non-PV-Manufacturing Nations

  • Malek Kamal Hussien Rabaia 1,2,*,   
  • Concetta Semeraro 1

Received: 28 Nov 2025 | Revised: 13 Mar 2026 | Accepted: 30 Mar 2026 | Published: 10 Jul 2026

Abstract

By 2050, globally accumulating waste from end-of-life solar photovoltaic (PV) panels will surpass 78 million tonnes as the global annual installations are exceeding predictions. PV dismantling and circular economy approaches are evidently appealing to countries that are leading PV manufacturing industries. Therefore, they confidently built PV waste management centers (PVWMCs). But what about the non-PV-manufacturing nations with large PV installations? This work presents a stable proactive long-term (2030–2075) solution through designing internal technical specifications and supply chain management of PVWMCs for two PV technologies. The proposed designs collect PV wastes then effectively store or dismantle them to output byproducts that can be stored or shared with non-PV industries; industrial symbiosis (IS). A Mixed-Integer Nonlinear Programming (MINLP) optimization model was created to balance multiple tradeoffs after projecting annual PV wastes. Results demonstrated the PVWMCs’ short- and long-term techno-economic profitability, controlled dismantling capacity, and linearized/stabilized materials’ supply, which was not achieved before.

References 

  • 1.

    Wang, X.; Palazoglu, A.; El-Farra, N.H. Operational Optimization and Demand Response of Hybrid Renewable Energy Systems. Appl. Energy 2015, 143, 324–335.

  • 2.

    Mohseni, S.; Brent, A.C.; Kelly, S.; et al. Demand Response-Integrated Investment and Operational Planning of Renewable and Sustainable Energy Systems Considering Forecast Uncertainties: A Systematic Review. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2022, 158, 112095.

  • 3.

    Zhao, H.; Yanqi, X. Risk Assessment of Zero-Carbon Hydrogen Energy Storage Systems Coupled with Renewable Energy Power Generation Systems. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2025, 149, 150141.

  • 4.

    Rabaia, M.K.H.; Abdelkareem, M.A.; Sayed, E.T.; et al. Environmental Impacts of Solar Energy Systems: A Review. Sci. Total Environ. 2021, 754, 141989.

  • 5.

    Sayed, E.T.; Wilberforce, T.; Elsaid, K.; et al. A Critical Review on Environmental Impacts of Renewable Energy Systems and Mitigation Strategies: Wind, Hydro, Biomass and Geothermal. Sci. Total Environ. 2021, 766, 144505.

  • 6.

    Virah-Sawmy, D.; Sturmberg, B. Socio-Economic and Environmental Impacts of Renewable Energy Deployments: A Review. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2025, 207, 114956.

  • 7.

    Srivastava, A.; Meena, P.K.; Nayak, C.; et al. Evaluating the Socio-Economic and Environmental Impacts of Renewable Energy Deployment: A Global Perspective. Energy Sustain. Dev. 2025, 89, 101863.

  • 8.

    Askari, I.B.; Ameri, M. Techno-Economic Feasibility Analysis of Stand-Alone Renewable Energy Systems (PV/Bat, Wind/Bat and Hybrid PV/Wind/Bat) in Kerman, Iran. Energy Sources Part B Econ. Plan. Policy 2012, 7, 45–60.

  • 9.

    Bhattacharjee, J.; Roy, S. A Comprehensive Review on Integrated Photo Rechargeable Batteries-Supercapacitors, and Their Techno-Economic Feasibility. J. Photochem. Photobiol. 2025, 25, 100257.

  • 10.

    Khan, A.A.; Minai, A.F.; Godi, R.K.; et al. Optimal Sizing, Techno-Economic Feasibility and Reliability Analysis of Hybrid Renewable Energy System: A Systematic Review of Energy Storage Systems’ Integration. IEEE Access 2025, 13, 59198–59226.

  • 11.

    Rabaia, M.K.H.; Semeraro, C.; Olabi, A.-G. Modeling Photovoltaics’ Waste Projection and Waste Management Optimization. J. Clean. Prod. 2023, 388, 135947. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.135947.

  • 12.

    Segreto, M.; Principe, L.; Desormeaux, A.; et al. Trends in Social Acceptance of Renewable Energy Across Europe—A Literature Review. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 9161.

  • 13.

    Stigka, E.K.; Paravantis, J.A.; Mihalakakou, G.K. Social Acceptance of Renewable Energy Sources: A Review of Contingent Valuation Applications. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2014, 32, 100–106.

  • 14.

    Maketo, L.; Ashworth, P. Social Acceptance of Green Hydrogen in European Union and the United Kingdom: A Systematic Review. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2025, 218, 115827.

  • 15.

    Rabaia, M.K.H.; Semeraro, C.; Olabi, A.-G. Recent Progress Towards Photovoltaics’ Circular Economy. J. Clean. Prod. 2022, 373, 133864. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.133864.

  • 16.

    Weckend, S.; Wade, A.; Heath, G.A. End of Life Management: Solar Photovoltaic Panels; National Renewable Energy Lab. (NREL): Golden, CO, USA, 2016.

  • 17.

    Babu, R.M.; Alam, M.S.; Islam, A.; et al. Towards Sustainable and Clean Energy Futures: A Techno-Economic Review of Solar PV Systems, Challenges, and Opportunities. IEEE Access 2025, 13, 169720–169757.

  • 18.

    Zhang, Y. Solar PV in the 21st Century: Aligning Technological Growth with Sustainability. Next Energy 2026, 10, 100499.

  • 19.

    Ahmed, S.; Ali, A.; Ansari, J.A.; et al. A Comprehensive Review of Solar Photovoltaic Systems: Scope, Technologies, Applications, Progress, Challenges and Recommendations. IEEE Access 2025, 13, 69723–69750.

  • 20.

    Tantau, A.; Niculescu, E. The Role of Power Purchase Agreements for the Promotion of Green Energy and the Transition to a Zero Carbon Economy. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Business Excellence, Bucharest, Romania, 24–26 March 2022; pp. 1237–1245.

  • 21.

    Sanusi, M.A.M.; Shad, M.K.; Poon, W.C. Electricity Supply Industry Transformation and Decarbonization in Peninsular Malaysia. Energy Rep. 2025, 14, 4370–4386.

  • 22.

    Tata, A.; Nweke-Eze, C. Risk Mitigation in Power Purchasing Agreements (PPAs) for Renewable Energy Projects in Developing Markets. Acad. Green Energy 2025, 2. https://doi.org/10.20935/AcadEnergy7961.

  • 23.

    Bag, S.; Gupta, S.; Kumar, S. Industry 4.0 Adoption and 10R Advance Manufacturing Capabilities for Sustainable Development. Int. J. Prod. Econ. 2021, 231, 107844.

  • 24.

    del Río, P.; Kiefer, C.P.; Carrillo-Hermosilla, J.; et al. The Micro-Level Approach to the Circular Economy. In The Circular Economy; Springer: Cham, Switzerland, 2021; pp. 73–87.

  • 25.

    Woldeyes, T.D.; Muffatto, M.; Ferrati, F. Emerging Business Models for Circular Economy: A Systematic Literature Review. In Proceedings of the European Conference on Innovation and Entrepreneurship, Paphos, Cyprus, 15–16 September 2022; pp. 599–607.

  • 26.

    Leemans, M.; de Koeijer, B.; Tuijthof, G.J. Adopting Circular Strategies in Medical Device Development: Mapping of Methods Along the Engineering Design Process. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2026, 225, 108577.

  • 27.

    Nwaogu, C.; Minasny, B.; Field, D.J.; et al. Conceptualizing Core Aspects of Circular Economy in Soil: A Critical Review and Analysis. Crit. Rev. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2025, 55, 805–835.

  • 28.

    Basnet, R.; Jones, L.; Azmie, M.A.; et al. Advancing Circular Economy of Silicon Photovoltaics: Current Status and Challenges of PV Module Reuse. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 2025, 292, 113816.

  • 29.

    Shahi, H.; Parashar, S. Refurbishment: A Systematic Review of Its Current State and Future Research Avenues. Clean. Waste Syst. 2026, 13, 100472.

  • 30.

    Li, J.; Tian, G.; Wu, Z.; et al. Unveiling Benefits: A Framework for Analyzing Small Hydropower Refurbishment Activities. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2025, 209, 115117.

  • 31.

    Steinbiß, K. The Principle of Refurbish in Circular Economy: Products Better Than New. In Circular Economy in Sustainable Supply Chains: A Global Perspective on Challenges, Concepts and Cases; Springer: Cham, Switzerland, 2025; pp. 97–102.

  • 32.

    Hosseini, M.R.; Ahmadi, M.; Helal, J.; et al. Environmental Impact Assessment of Refurbishment Versus New Construction: A Multi-Category Life Cycle Analysis of Building Projects. J. Build. Eng. 2025. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2025.113825.

  • 33.

    Chintapalli, P.; Rajaram, K.; Verma, N.K. Optimizing Product Reusability Under Supply Risk and Outsourced Refurbishment. IISE Trans. 2026. https://doi.org/10.1080/24725854.2026.2613436.

  • 34.

    Caterino, M.; Iannone, R.; Macchiaroli, R.; et al. Enhancing Remanufacturing Operations: A Review on Decision-Making Models and Their Implementation Challenges. Comput. Ind. Eng. 2025, 204, 111088.

  • 35.

    Liu, Y.; Liu, B.; Yang, H.; et al. Optimal Production and Maintenance Strategies for Manufacturing/Remanufacturing Leasing System Considering Uncertain Quality and Carbon Emission. Int. J. Prod. Econ. 2025, 280, 109489.

  • 36.

    Mejía-Moncayo, C.; Chaabane, A.; Kenné, J.-P.; et al. Key Performance Indicators for Sustainable Remanufacturing: A Literature Review and Methodological Framework. Clean. Logist. Supply Chain 2025, 17, 100260.

  • 37.

    Liu, Y.; Tian, G.; Sheng, H.; et al. Batch EOL Products Human-Robot Collaborative Remanufacturing Process Planning and Scheduling for Industry 5.0. Robot. Comput. Integr. Manuf. 2026, 97, 103098.

  • 38.

    Werner-Lewandowska, K.; Golinska-Dawson, P.; Mierzwiak, R. Enablers and Barriers in Building the Circular Supply Chain Through Remanufacturing-Grey DEMATEL Approach. Int. J. Prod. Econ. 2025, 284, 109617.

  • 39.

    Vignesh, S.; Che, H.S.; Selvaraj, J.; et al. Repurposing Electric Vehicle Batteries: State of Art and Challenges from Repurposer Perspective. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2025, 213, 115439.

  • 40.

    Hewa Witharanage, S.D.; Otto, K.; Li, W.; et al. Repurposing as a Decommissioning Strategy for Complex Systems: A Systematic Review. J. Mech. Des. 2025, 147, 050801.

  • 41.

    Psarommatis, F.; May, G.; Azamfirei, V. Product Reuse and Repurpose in Circular Manufacturing: A Critical Review of Key Challenges, Shortcomings and Future Directions. J. Remanufacturing 2025, 15, 273–310.

  • 42.

    Islam, M.T.; Nizami, M.S.H.; Mahmoudi, S.; et al. Reverse Logistics Network Design for Waste Solar Photovoltaic Panels: A Case Study of New South Wales Councils in Australia. Waste Manag. Res. 2021, 39, 386–395.

  • 43.

    Yu, H.; Tong, X. Producer vs. Local Government: The Locational Strategy for End-of-Life Photovoltaic Modules Recycling in Zhejiang Province. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2021, 169, 105484.

  • 44.

    Guo, Q.; Kluse, C. A Framework of Photovoltaics Recycling Facility Location Optimization. Sustain. Prod. Consum. 2020, 23, 105–110.

  • 45.

    Oteng, D.; Zuo, J.; Sharifi, E. Environmental Emissions Influencing Solar Photovoltaic Waste Management in Australia: An Optimised System Network of Waste Collection Facilities. J. Environ. Manag. 2022, 314, 115007. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2022.115007.

  • 46.

    Shahbazbegian, V.; Hosseini-Motlagh, S.-M.; Haeri, A. Integrated Forward/Reverse Logistics Thin-Film Photovoltaic Power Plant Supply Chain Network Design with Uncertain Data. Appl. Energy 2020, 277, 115538. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2020.115538.

  • 47.

    Choi, J.-K.; Fthenakis, V. Crystalline Silicon Photovoltaic Recycling Planning: Macro and Micro Perspectives. J. Clean. Prod. 2014, 66, 443–449. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.11.022.

  • 48.

    Choi, J.K.; Fthenakis, V. Economic Feasibility of Recycling Photovoltaic Modules. Journal of Industrial Ecology 2010, 14, 947–964.

  • 49.

    Guo, Q.; Guo, H. A Framework for End-of-Life Photovoltaics Distribution Routing Optimization. Sustain. Environ. Res. 2019, 29, 1–8.

  • 50.

    Molano, J.C.; Xing, K.; Majewski, P.; et al. A Holistic Reverse Logistics Planning Framework for End-of-Life PV Panel Collection System Design. J. Environ. Manag. 2022, 317, 115331. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2022.115331.

  • 51.

    Li, Q.; Liu, K.; Zhang, Z.-H. Robust Design of a Strategic Network Planning for Photovoltaic Module Recycling Considering Reclaimed Resource Price Uncertainty. IISE Trans. 2019, 51, 691–708.

  • 52.

    Mathur, N.; Singh, S.; Sutherland, J. Promoting a Circular Economy in the Solar Photovoltaic Industry Using Life Cycle Symbiosis. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2020, 155, 104649.

  • 53.

    Mahmoudi, S.; Huda, N.; Behnia, M. Environmental Impacts and Economic Feasibility of End of Life Photovoltaic Panels in Australia: A Comprehensive Assessment. J. Clean. Prod. 2020, 260, 120996. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.120996.

  • 54.

    Cucchiella, F.; D׳Adamo, I.; Rosa, P. End-of-Life of Used Photovoltaic Modules: A Financial Analysis. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2015, 47, 552–561. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.03.076.

  • 55.

    Predoiu, R.L. A Sustainable Approach for Managing the End-of-Life Phase of Photovoltaic Systems. Master’s Thesis, TU Wien, Vienna, Austria, 2017.

  • 56.

    Ardente, F.; Latunussa, C.E.L.; Blengini, G.A. Resource Efficient Recovery of Critical and Precious Metals from Waste Silicon PV Panel Recycling. Waste Manag. 2019, 91, 156–167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2019.04.059.

  • 57.

    Latunussa, C.E.L.; Ardente, F.; Blengini, G.A.; et al. Life Cycle Assessment of an Innovative Recycling Process for Crystalline Silicon Photovoltaic Panels. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 2016, 156, 101–111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2016.03.020.

  • 58.

    Sinha, P.; Cossette, M.; Ménard, J.-F. End-of-Life CdTe PV Recycling with Semiconductor Refining. In Proceedings of the 27th European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference and Exhibition, Frankfurt, Germany, 24–28 September 2012; pp. 4653–4656.

  • 59.

    Miller, C.; Peters, I.; Zaverri, S. Thin Film CdTe Photovoltaics and the US Energy Transition in 2020; QESST Engineering Research Center: Tempe, AZ, USA, 2020.

  • 60.

    Rix, A.; Steyl, J.; Rudman, J.; et al. First Solar’s CdTe Module Technology–Performance, Life Cycle, Health and Safety Impact Assessment; Centre for Renewable and Sustainable Energy Studies: Stellenbosch, South Africa, 2015.

  • 61.

    Bengoechea, J.; Rodriguez, M.; Lagunas, A. First Solar CdTe Photovoltaic Technology: Environmental, Health and Safety Assessment; CENER, Solar Photovoltaic Energy Department: Sarriguren, Spain, 2010.

  • 62.

    Vellini, M.; Gambini, M.; Prattella, V. Environmental Impacts of PV Technology Throughout the Life Cycle: Importance of the End-of-Life Management for Si-Panels and CdTe-Panels. Energy 2017, 138, 1099–1111.

  • 63.

    Fthenakis, V.; Athias, C.; Blumenthal, A.; et al. Sustainability Evaluation of CdTe PV: An Update. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2020, 123, 109776.

  • 64.

    Rabaia, M.K.H.; Mahmoud, M.; Sayed, E.T.; et al. Case Studies and Analysis of Solar Photovoltaics. In Renewable Energy-Volume 1: Solar, Wind, and Hydropower; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2023; pp. 237–279.

  • 65.

    Rinne, H. The Weibull Distribution: A Handbook; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2008.

  • 66.

    Zimmermann, T. Dynamic Material Flow Analysis of Critical Metals Embodied in Thin-Film Photovoltaic Cells; Universität Bremen: Bremen, Germany, 2013.

  • 67.

    Marwede, M. Cycling Critical Absorber Materials of Cdte-and Cigs-Photovoltaics: Material Efficiency Along the Life-Cycle; Universität Augsburg: Augsburg, Germany, 2013.

  • 68.

    Kumar, S.; Sarkar, B. Design for Reliability with Weibull Analysis for Photovoltaic Modules. Int. J. Curr. Eng. Technol 2013, 3, 129–134.

  • 69.

    Umachandran, N. Spatial Temperature Uniformity and Statistical Determination of Dominant Degradation Modes in PV Modules; Arizona State University: Tempe, AZ, USA, 2015.

  • 70.

    Choi, J.-K.; Fthenakis, V. Design and Optimization of Photovoltaics Recycling Infrastructure. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2010, 44, 8678–8683.

  • 71.

    InnovationCentre. Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum Solar Park. Available online: https://www.mbrsic.ae/en/about/mohammed-bin-rashid-al-maktoum-solar-park/ (accessed on 1 January 2022).

  • 72.

    DEWA. Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum Solar Park—A Leading Project that Promotes Sustainability in the UAE. Available online: https://www.dewa.gov.ae/en/about-us/media-publications/latest-news/2019/03/mohammed-bin-rashid-al-maktoum-solar-park (accessed on 1 January 2022).

  • 73.

    Acwapower. Shuaa Energy 1. Available online: https://www.acwapower.com/en/what-we-do/projects/shuaa-energy-1/ (accessed on 10 March 2026).

  • 74.

    Acwapower. DEWA Mohammed Bin Rashid Al Maktoum Solar Park—Phase V, 900MW Solar PV IPP, Dubai, UAE. Available online: https://acwapower.com/media/lj1hbaax/dewa-v-pv-maktoum-sp-esia-volume-2-main-report.pdf (accessed on 10 March 2026).

  • 75.

    Masdar. Masdar City Solar Photovoltaic Plant. Available online: https://masdar.ae/en/renewables/technologies/photovoltaic-power (accessed on 10 March 2026).

  • 76.

    Camelicious. Camelicious Solar Pv Ground-Mounted System. Available online: https://camel.camelicious.com/farm/videos/Camelicious-Solar-PV-Ground-mounted-System60166a16a4920 (accessed on 10 March 2026).

  • 77.

    EWEC. Noor Abu Dhabi. Available online: https://www.ewec.ae/existing-plant/noor-abu-dhabi (accessed on 10 March 2026).

  • 78.

    Masdar. Masdar City 10MW—Solar PV Plant. Available online: https://masdar.ae/-/media/corporate/projects/downloads/masdar-city-solar-photovoltaic-plant--brochure---english/masdar-city-10mw-solar-pv-plant.pdf (accessed on 10 March 2026).

  • 79.

    Acwapower. Noor Energy 1. Available online: https://www.acwapower.com/en/what-we-do/projects/noor-energy-1/ (accessed on 10 March 2026).

  • 80.

    Acwapower. DEWA 200MW Solar PV Phase 2. Available online: https://acwapower.com/media/ehmoj4sy/shuaa-1-esia-volume-1-executive-summary.pdf (accessed on 10 March 2026).

  • 81.

    SunPower. SunPower® P19-405-COM (SunPower® Performance Panel for Commercial Installations); SunPower: Elmsford, NY, USA, 2018.

  • 82.

    FirstSolar. First Solar FS Series 2 PV Module (Thin Film Solutions for High Performance PV Systems); FirstSolar: Phoenix, AZ, USA, 2009.

  • 83.

    FirstSolar. FS Series 3 PV Module User Guide—Global REV 3.0; FirstSolar: Phoenix, AZ, USA, 2013.

  • 84.

    FirstSolar. First Solar Series 4TM PV Module (Advanced Thin Film Solar Technology); FirstSolar: Phoenix, AZ, USA, 2018.

  • 85.

    FirstSolar. First Solar Series 6 (Advanced Thin Film Solar Technology); FirstSolar: Phoenix, AZ, USA, 2022.

  • 86.

    FirstSolar. First Solar Series 6TM Modules|USER Guide PD-5-200-06; FirstSolar: Phoenix, AZ, USA, 2020.

  • 87.

    FirstSolar. First Solar Series 6 Plus (Advanced Thin Film Solar Technology); FirstSolar: Phoenix, AZ, USA, 2021.

  • 88.

    RecyclingMarkets. Prices for Most Recycled Plastics Continue to Rise. Available online: https://resource-recycling.com/recycling/2021/02/16/prices-for-most-recycled-plastics-continue-to-rise/#:~:text=The%20national%20average%20price%20of%20Grade%20A%20film%20is%20now,at%200.81%20cents%20per%20pound. (accessed on 1 January 2022).

  • 89.

    Eurostat. Recycling—Secondary Material Price Indicator. Available online: https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=Recycling_%E2%80%93_secondary_material_price_indicator (accessed on 1 January 2022).

  • 90.

    Khan, Z.A.; Chowdhury, S.R.; Mitra, B.; et al. Analysis of Industrial Symbiosis Case Studies and Its Potential in Saudi Arabia. J. Clean. Prod. 2023, 385, 135536. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.135536.

  • 91.

    Chowdhury, S.R.; Mitra, B.; Ghannam, M.; et al. Symbiosis, Zero-Waste Goal and Resource-Sharing Potential for UAE Industries. J. Environ. Manag. 2025, 380, 125128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2025.125128.

  • 92.

    Kumar, U. Industrial Symbiosis: An Exploration of the Potential of Sustainable Waste Management in the UAE; Sheikh Saud bin Saqr Al Qasimi Foundation for Policy Research: Ras Al Khaimah, United Arab Emirates, 2022.

Share this article:
Download PDF
DOI
10.53941/rset.2026.100009
Issue
Volume 2, Issue 3
How to Cite
Rabaia, M. K. H.; Semeraro, C. Comprehensive Design of Solar Photovoltaic Circular Economy for Non-PV-Manufacturing Nations. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Technology 2026, 2 (3), 12. https://doi.org/10.53941/rset.2026.100009.
RIS
BibTex
Copyright & License
article copyright Image
Copyright (c) 2026 by the authors.