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Evolving Global Microplastic Research: History and Perspective

  • Zi-Yun Xu 1,†,   
  • Lei Mai 2,3,†,   
  • Lian-Jun Bao 1,2,   
  • Yuan Ren 1,   
  • Eddy Y. Zeng 1,3,*

Received: 22 Mar 2026 | Revised: 04 Jun 2026 | Accepted: 08 Jun 2026 | Published: 24 Jun 2026

Abstract

Although plastic was invented more than a century ago, massive production did not start until the early 1950s. The widespread use of plastic products since then has substantially improved the quality of life in modern society, but also created increasing environmental concerns. The earliest documented research was conducted in the early 1970s and was popularized following the discovery of floating plastic debris in the Pacific Ocean in the late 1990s. Tiny plastic particles were further defined as “microplastics” (MPs) in 2004, which greatly spurred research activities globally. Sampling methods for MPs mainly vary among environmental matrices, while FTIR and Raman spectroscopies, as well as pyrolysis-GC-MS remain the prevailing tools for MP analysis. Cross-compartment transfer of MPs is well documented, but uncertainties remain regarding their bioaccumulation and biomagnification. A more controversial issue is the occurrence of MPs in human organs, which has provoked intensive debates and concerns. Improved analytical protocols and quality-control procedures are essential to generate robust data and reduce uncertainties. On the other hand, discharge of terrestrial MPs to the global ocean has been estimated, but available estimates vary in several orders of magnitude, which poses difficulty in constraining the combined impact of anthropogenic activities on marine plastic pollution. Substantial uncertainties remain regarding human exposure, bioaccumulation and biomagnification processes, as well as the magnitude of land-to-sea MP fluxes, posing major challenges for future research and risk assessment.

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