ALE/
Articles/
2512002537
  • Open Access
  • Article

Growth Performance of Three Forage Fish in a Hyper-Saline Lagoon: The Coorong, South Australia

  • Md. Afzal Hossain 1, 2, *,   
  • Shefali Aktar 3,   
  • Deevesh A. Hemraj 4,   
  • Qifeng Ye 5,   
  • Sophie Leterme 1

Received: 01 Sep 2025 | Revised: 23 Oct 2025 | Accepted: 16 Dec 2025 | Published: 29 Jan 2026

Abstract

The present study investigates environmental impacts on the growth performance of three forage fish: small-mouthed hardyhead (Atherinosoma microstoma), Tamar goby (Afurcagobius tamarensis), and sandy sprat (Hyperlophus vittatus) in the Murray Estuary and Coorong. Fish were sampled using a seine net and fish age was estimated using the daily increment of sagittal otoliths to determine growth patterns of these three forage fishes. The estimated growth rates were 0.019 day−1 (r2 = 0.98) for small-mouthed hardyhead, 0.038 day−1 (r2 = 0.95) for Tamar goby and 0.016 day−1 (r2 = 0.94) for sandy sprat. The length-weight relationship indicated the slope (b = 2.96; r2 = 0.97) in small-mouthed hardyhead, (b = 3.06; r2 = 0.98) in Tamar goby and (b = 3.1; r2 = 0.88) in sandy sprat. Spatiotemporal variation in the condition factor was observed in all three-forage fish across the salinity gradients. Chlorophyll-a, water transparency, salinity, and to a lesser extent temperature and oxygen predominantly influenced the growth of forage fish. This study indicates that environmental factors can greatly influence the growth parameters of forage fish. The findings offer new insights into the growth variations of small-bodied forage fish in a reserve estuary with a broad salinity gradient.

References 

  • 1.

    Beck, M.W.; Heck, K.L.; Able, K.W.; et al. The Identification, Conservation, and Management of Estuarine and Marine Nurseries for Fish and Invertebrates. Bioscience 2001, 51, 633–641.

  • 2.

    Ferguson, G.J.; Ward, T.M.; Geddes, M.C. Do Recent Age Structures and Historical Catches of Mulloway, Argyrosomus japonicus (Sciaenidae), Reflect Freshwater Inflows in the Remnant Estuary of the Murray River, South Australia? Aquat. Living Resour. 2008, 21, 145–152.

  • 3.

    Morrongiello, J.R.; Walsh, C.T.; Gray, C.A.; et al. Impacts of Drought and Predicted Effects of Climate Change on Fish Growth in Temperate Australian Lakes. Glob. Chang. Biol. 2011, 17, 745–755.

  • 4.

    Gillanders, B.M.; Munro, A.R. Hypersaline Waters Pose New Challenges for Reconstructing Environmental Histories of Fish Based on Otolith Chemistry. Limnol. Oceanogr. 2012, 57, 1136–1148.

  • 5.

    Gillanders, B.M.; Elsdon, T.S.; Halliday, I.A.; et al. Potential Effects of Climate Change on Australian Estuaries and Fish Utilising Estuaries: A Review. Mar. Freshw. Res. 2011, 62, 1115–1131.

  • 6.

    Madeira, D.; Narciso, L.; Cabral, H.N.; et al. Influence of Temperature in Thermal and Oxidative Stress Responses in Estuarine Fish. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. Part A Mol. Integr. Physiol. 2013, 166, 237–243.

  • 7.

    Boeuf, G.; Payan, P. How Should Salinity Influence Fish Growth? Comp. Biochem. Physiol. Part C Toxicol. Pharmacol. 2001, 130, 411–423.

  • 8.

    Panfili, J.; Thior, D.; Ecoutin, J.M.; et al. Influence of Salinity on Life History Traits of the Bonga Shad Ethmalosa fimbriata (Pisces, Clupeidae): Comparison Between the Gambia and Saloum Estuaries. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 2004, 270, 241–257.

  • 9.

    Jenkins, G.P.; King, D. Variation in Larval Growth Can Predict the Recruitment of a Temperate, Seagrass-Associated Fish. Oecologia 2006, 147, 641–649.

  • 10.

    Admassu, D.; Ahlgren, I. Growth of Juvenile Tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus L. From Lakes Zwai, Langeno and Chamo (Ethiopian Rift Valley) Based on Otolith Microincrement Analysis. Ecol. Freshw. Fish 2000, 9, 127–137.

  • 11.

    Massou, A.; Panfili, J.; Laë, R.; et al. Effects of Different Food Restrictions on Somatic and Otolith Growth in Nile Tilapia Reared Under Controlled Conditions. J. Fish Biol. 2002, 60, 1093–1104.

  • 12.

    Rogers, P.; Ward, T. Life History Strategy of Sandy Sprat Hyperlophus vittatus (Clupeidae): A Comparison With Clupeoids of the Indo‐Pacific and Southern Australia. J. Appl. Ichthyol. 2007, 23, 583–591.

  • 13.

    Brookes, J.D.; Lamontagne, S.; Aldridge, K.T.; et al. Fish Productivity in the Lower Lakes and Coorong, Australia, during Severe Drought. Trans. R. Soc. South Aust. 2015, 139, 189–215.

  • 14.

    Ferguson, G.J.; Ward, T.M.; Ye, Q.; et al. Impacts of Drought, Flow Regime, and Fishing on the Fish Assemblage in Southern Australia’s Largest Temperate Estuary. Estuaries Coasts 2013, 36, 737–753.

  • 15.

    Ye, Q.; Bucater, L.; Short, D.; et al. Fish Response to Barrage Releases in 2011/12 and Recovery Following the Recent Drought in the Coorong; South Australian Research and Development Institute (Aquatic Sciences): Adelaide, SA, Australia, 2012; Volume 665, p. 81.

  • 16.

    Leterme, S.C.; Prime, E.; Mitchell, J.; et al. Drought Conditions and Recovery in the Coorong Wetland, South Australia in 1997–2013. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 2015, 163, 175–184.

  • 17.

    Webster, I.T. The Hydrodynamics and Salinity Regime of a Coastal Lagoon–The Coorong, Australia–Seasonal to Multi-Decadal Timescales. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 2010, 90, 264–274.

  • 18.

    Hossain, A.; Ferdous, Z.; Foysal, M.J.; et al. Spatial and Temporal Changes of Three Prey-Fish Assemblage Structure in a Hypersaline Lagoon: The Coorong, South Australia. Mar. Freshw. Res. 2016, 68, 282–292.

  • 19.

    Noell, C.J.; Ye, Q.; Short, D.A.; et al. Fish Assemblages of the Murray Mouth and Coorong Region, South Australia, During an Extended Drought Period; CSIRO Water for a Healthy Country National Research Flagship and South Australian Research and Development Institute (Aquatic Sciences): Adelaide, SA, Australia, 2009.

  • 20.

    Dittmann, S.; Baring, R.; Baggalley, S.; et al. Drought and Flood Effects on Macrobenthic Communities in the Estuary of Australia’s Largest River System. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 2015, 165, 36–51.

  • 21.

    Jendyk, J.; Haese, R.R.; Mosley, L.M. Environmental Variability and Phytoplankton Dynamics in a South Australian Inverse Estuary. Cont. Shelf Res. 2014, 91, 134–144.

  • 22.

    Schapira, M.; Buscot, M.J.; Pollet, T.; et al. Distribution of Picophytoplankton Communities from Brackish to Hypersaline Waters in a South Australian Coastal Lagoon. Saline Syst. 2010, 6, 2.

  • 23.

    Geddes, M.; Shiel, R.; Francis, J. Zooplankton in the Murray Estuary and Coorong During Flow and No-Flow Periods. Trans. R. Soc. South Aust. 2016, 140, 74–89.

  • 24.

    Gillanders, B.M.; Izzo, C.; Doubleday, Z.A.; et al. Partial Migration: Growth Varies Between Resident and Migratory Fish. Biol. Lett. 2015, 11, 20140850.

  • 25.

    Engelhard, G.H.; Peck, M.A.; Rindorf, A.; et al. Forage Fish, Their Fisheries, and Their Predators: Who Drives Whom? ICES J. Mar. Sci. 2014, 71, 90–104.

  • 26.

    Pikitch, E.; Boersma, P.D.; Boyd, I.L.; et al. Little Fish, Big Impact: Managing a Crucial Link in Ocean Food Webs; Lenfest Ocean Program: Washington, DC, USA, 2012; p. 108.

  • 27.

    Giatas, G.C.; Ye, Q. The Ecological Health of the North and South Lagoons of the Coorong in July 2004. In Report Prepared for the Department of Water, Land and Biodiversity Conservation; SARDI Aquatic Sciences Publication: Adelaide, SA, Australia, 2015.

  • 28.

    Paton, D. At the End of the River: The Coorong and Lower Lakes; ATF Press: Hindmarsh, SA, Australia, 2010.

  • 29.

    Thompson, V.J.; Bray, D.J. Smallmouth Hardyhead, Atherinosoma microstoma (Günther 1861). Available online: https://fishesofaustralia.net.au/home/species/4633(accessed on 18 August 2025).

  • 30.

    Eckert, J.; Robinson, R. The Fishes of the Coorong. South Aust. Nat. 1990, 65, 4–30.

  • 31.

    Lintermans, M. Fishes of the Murray-Darling Basin: An Introductory Guide; Murray-Darling Basin Commission: Canberra, ACT, Australia, 2007.

  • 32.

    Wedderburn, S.D.; Hammer, M.P.; Bice, C.M. Population and Osmoregulatory Responses of a Euryhaline Fish to Extreme Salinity Fluctuations in Coastal Lagoons of the Coorong, Australia. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 2016, 168, 50–57.

  • 33.

    Rowling, K.; Hegarty, A.-M.; Ives, M. Status of Fisheries Resources in NSW 2008/09. Available online: https://www.fish.gov.au/Archived-Reports/2014/Documents/Rowling_et_al_2010.pdf (accessed on 18 August 2025).

  • 34.

    Morrongiello, J.R.; Walsh, C.T.; Gray, C.A.; et al. Environmental Change Drives Long‐Term Recruitment and Growth Variation in an Estuarine Fish. Glob. Chang. Biol. 2014, 20, 1844–1860.

  • 35.

    Sousa, M.; Fabré, N.; Batista, V. Seasonal Growth of Mugil liza Valenciennes, 1836 in a Tropical Estuarine System. J. Appl. Ichthyol. 2015, 31, 1042–1050.

  • 36.

    Zampatti, B.P.; Bice, C.M.; Jennings, P.R. Temporal Variability in Fish Assemblage Structure and Recruitment in a Freshwater-Deprived Estuary: The Coorong, Australia. Mar. Freshw. Res. 2010, 61, 1298–1312.

  • 37.

    Molsher, R.L.; Geddes, M.C.; Paton, D.C. Population and Reproductive Ecology of the Small-Mouthed Hardyhead Atherinosoma microstoma (Günther) (Pisces: Atherinidae) Along a Salinity Gradient in the Coorong, South Australia. Trans. R. Soc. South Aust. 1994, 118, 207–216.

  • 38.

    Livore, J.P.; Zampatti, B.P.; Bice, C.M.; et al. Fish Response to Flow in the Coorong During 2012/13; South Australian Research and Development Institute (Aquatic Sciences): Adelaide, SA, Australia, 2013; p. 80.

  • 39.

    Hamond, R. The Australian Species of Mesochra (Crustacea: Harpacticoida), With a Comprehensive Key to the Genus. Aust. J. Zool. 1971, 19, 1–32.

  • 40.

    Hamond, R. The Harpacticoid Copepods (Crustacea) of the Saline Lakes in Southeast Australia: With Special Reference to the Laophontidae; Australian Museum: Darlinghurst, NSW, Australia, 1973; Volume 28, pp. 393–420.

  • 41.

    Smirnov, N.N.; Timms, B. A Revision of the Australian Cladocera (Crustacea); Australian Museum: Darlinghurst, NSW, Australia, 1983.

  • 42.

    Shiel, R.J. A Guide to Identification of Rotifers, Cladocerans and Copepods From Australian Inland Waters; Co-operative Research Centre for Freshwater Ecology Canberra: Canberra, ACT, Australia, 1995.

  • 43.

    Bayly, I. The Non-Marine Centropagidae. (Copepoda: Calanoida) of the World. Guides to the Identification of the Macroinvertebrates of the Continental Waters of the World; SPB Academic Publishing: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 1992.

  • 44.

    Pannella, G. Fish Otoliths: Daily Growth Layers and Periodical Patterns. Science 1971, 173, 1124–1127.

  • 45.

    Ye, Q.; Jones, K.; Giatas, G. Age and Growth Rate Determination of Southern Sea Garfish. In ‘Fisheries Biology and Habitat Ecology of Southern Sea Garfish (Hyporhamphus melanochir) in Southern Australian Waters; Fisheries Research and Development Corporation: Canberra, ACT, Australia, 2002; Volume 97, pp. 35–99.

  • 46.

    O’Sullivan, S. Fisheries Long Term Monitoring Program-Fish Age Estimation Review; Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries: Brisbane, QLD, Australia, 2007.

  • 47.

    Beamish, R.; Fournier, D. A Method for Comparing the Precision of a Set of Age Determinations. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 1981, 38, 982–983.

  • 48.

    Zar, J.H. Biostatistical Analysis, 4th ed.; Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River: NJ, USA, 1999.

  • 49.

    Aschenbrenner, A.; Ferreira, B. Age, Growth and Mortality of Lutjanus alexandrei in Estuarine and Coastal Waters of the Tropical South‐Western Atlantic. J. Appl. Ichthyol. 2015, 31, 57–64.

  • 50.

    King, M. Fisheries Biology, Assessment and Management; John Wiley & Sons: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2013.

  • 51.

    Anderson, M.J.; Gorley, R.N.; Clarke, K.R. PERMANOVA+ for PRIMER: Guide to Software and Statistical Methods; PRIMER-E: Plymouth, UK, 2008.

  • 52.

    Clarke, K.R.; Warwick, R.M. Change in Marine Communities: An Approach to Statistical Analysis and Interpretation; PRIMER-E: Plymouth, UK, 2001.

  • 53.

    Anderson, M.J. A New Method for Non‐Parametric Multivariate Analysis of Variance. Austral Ecol. 2001, 26, 32–46.

  • 54.

    Prince, J.; Potter, I. Life-Cycle Duration, Growth and Spawning Times of Five Species of Atherinidae (Teleostei) Found in a Western Australian Estuary. Mar. Freshw. Res. 1983, 34, 287–301.

  • 55.

    Potter, I.; Ivantsoff, W.; Cameron, R.; et al. Life Cycles and Distribution of Atherinids in the Marine and Estuarine Waters of Southern Australia. Hydrobiologia 1986, 139, 23–40.

  • 56.

    Cheshire, K.; Wedderburn, S.; Barnes, T.; et al. Aspects of Reproductive Biology of Five Key Fish Species in the Murray Mouth and Coorong; South Australian Research and Development Institute (Aquatic Sciences): Adelaide, SA, Australia, 2013.

  • 57.

    Gaughan, D.; Fletcher, W.; Tregonning, R. Spatial and Seasonal Distribution of Eggs and Larvae of Sandy Sprat, Hyperlophus vittatus (Clupeidae), off South-Western Australia. Mar. Freshw. Res. 1996, 47, 971–979.

  • 58.

    Boudinar, A.; Chaoui, L.; Kara, M. Age, Growth and Reproduction of the Sand Smelt Atherina boyeri Risso, 1810 in Mellah Lagoon (Eastern Algeria). J. Appl. Ichthyol. 2016, 32, 1155–1163.

  • 59.

    Ricker, W.E. Computation and Interpretation of Biological Statistics of Fish Populations. Bull. Fish. Res. Board Can. 1975, 191, 1–382.

  • 60.

    Lui, L.C. Salinity Tolerance and Osmoregulation of Taeniomembers microstomus (Gunther, 1861) (Pisces: Mugiliformes: Atherinidae) From Australian Salt Lakes. Mar. Freshw. Res. 1969, 20, 157–162.

  • 61.

    Azevedo, J.M.N.; Simas, A.M.V. Age, Growth, Reproduction and Diet of a Sublittoral Population of the Rock Goby Gobius paganellus (Teleostei, Gobiidae). Hydrobiologia 2000, 440, 129–135.

  • 62.

    McNeil, D.; Hammat, J.; Geddes, M.; et al. Effects of Hyper-Saline Conditions Upon Six Estuarine Fish Species From the Coorong and Murray Mouth; South Australian Research and Development Institute (Aquatic Sciences): Adelaide, SA, Australia, 2013.

  • 63.

    Ye, Q.; Bucater, L.; Short, D.; et al. Coorong Fish Condition Monitoring 2008–2012: The Black Bream (Acanthopagrus Butcheri), Greenback Flounder (Rhombosolea Tapirina) and Smallmouthed Hardyhead (Atherinosoma Microstoma) Populations; South Australian Research and Developement Institute (Aquatic Sciences): Adelaide, SA, Australia, 2012.

  • 64.

    Bice, C. Literature Review on the Ecology of Fishes of the Lower Murray, Lower Lakes and Coorong. In Report to the South Australian Department for Environment & Heritage; South Australian Research & Development Institute (Aquatic Sciences): Adelaide, SA, Australia, 2010.

  • 65.

    Satilmis, H.H.; Zengin, M.; Daban, İ.B.; et al. Length-Weight Relationships of the Three Most Abundant Pelagic Fish Species Caught by Mid-Water Trawls and Purse Seine in the Black Sea. Cah. Biol. Mar. 2014, 55, 259–265.

  • 66.

    Wootton, R.J. Fish Ecology; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 1991.

  • 67.

    Gaughan, D.J. Aspects of the Biology and Stock Assessment of the Whitebait, Hyperlophus vittatus, in South Western Australia. Mar. Freshw. Res.1996; 47, 971–979.

  • 68.

    Froese, R. Cube Law, Condition Factor and Weight–Length Relationships: History, Meta‐Analysis and Recommendations. J. Appl. Ichthyol. 2006, 22, 241–253.

  • 69.

    Russell, D.; McDougall, A.; Fletcher, A.; et al. Variability in the Growth, Feeding and Condition of Barramundi (Lates Calcarifer Bloch) in a Northern Australian Coastal River and Impoundment. Mar. Freshw. Res. 2015, 66, 928–941.

  • 70.

    Prince, J.; Potter, I.; Lenanton, R.; et al. Segregation and Feeding of Atherinid Species (Teleostei) in South-Western Australian Estuaries. Mar. Freshw. Res. 1982, 33, 865–880.

  • 71.

    Humphries, P.; Potter, I. Relationship Between the Habitat and Diet of Three Species of Atherinids and Three Species of Gobies in a Temperate Australian Estuary. Mar. Biol. 1993, 116, 193–204.

  • 72.

    Efitre, J.; Chapman, L.J.; Murie, D.J. Fish Condition in Introduced Tilapias of Ugandan Crater Lakes in Relation to Deforestation and Fishing Pressure. Environ. Biol. Fishes 2009, 85, 63–75.

  • 73.

    Herman, P.M.; Heip, C.H. Biogeochemistry of the MAximum TURbidity Zone of Estuaries (MATURE): Some Conclusions. J. Mar. Syst. 1999, 22, 89–104.

  • 74.

    Manning, N.F.; Bossenbroek, J.M.; Mayer, C.M.; et al. Effects of Water Clarity on the Length and Abundance of Age-0 Yellow Perch in the Western Basin of Lake Erie. J. Great Lakes Res. 2013, 39, 295–302.

  • 75.

    Rosso, J.J.; Quirós, R.; Rennella, A.M.; et al. Relationships Between Fish Species Abundances and Water Transparency in Hypertrophic Turbid Waters of Temperate Shallow Lakes. Int. Rev. Hydrobiol. 2010, 95, 142–155.

  • 76.

    Gray, S.M.; Sabbah, S.; Hawryshyn, C.W. As Clear as Mud: Turbidity Induces Behavioral Changes in the African Cichlid Pseudocrenilabrus multicolor. Curr. Zool. 2012, 58, 143–154.

  • 77.

    Harrison, T.; Whitfield, A. Temperature and Salinity as Primary Determinants Influencing the Biogeography of Fishes in South African Estuaries. Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 2006, 66, 335–345.

  • 78.

    Telesh, I.V.; Khlebovich, V.V. Principal Processes Within the Estuarine Salinity Gradient: A Review. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2010, 61, 149–155.

  • 79.

    Cardona, L. Effects of Salinity on the Habitat Selection and Growth Performance of Mediterranean Flathead Grey Mullet Mugil cephalus (Osteichthyes, Mugilidae). Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 2000, 50, 727–737.

  • 80.

    Froeschke, J.T.; Stunz, G.W. Hierarchical and Interactive Habitat Selection in Response to Abiotic and Biotic Factors: The Effect of Hypoxia on Habitat Selection of Juvenile Estuarine Fishes. Environ. Biol. Fishes 2012, 93, 31–41.

  • 81.

    Levin, L.; Ekau, W.; Gooday, A.; et al. Effects of Natural and Human-Induced Hypoxia on Coastal Benthos. Biogeosciences 2009, 6, 2063–2098.

  • 82.

    Williams, W.D. Salinity as a Determinant of the Structure of Biological Communities in Salt Lakes. Hydrobiologia 1998, 381, 191–201.

Share this article:
Download PDF
DOI
10.53941/ale.2026.100003
Issue
Volume 2, Issue 1
How to Cite
Hossain, Md. A.; Aktar, S.; Hemraj, D. A.; Ye, Q.; Leterme, S. Growth Performance of Three Forage Fish in a Hyper-Saline Lagoon: The Coorong, South Australia. Aquatic Life and Ecosystems 2026, 2 (1), 3. https://doi.org/10.53941/ale.2026.100003.
RIS
BibTex
Copyright & License
article copyright Image
Copyright (c) 2026 by the authors.