EESUS/
Articles/
2604003573
  • Open Access
  • Perspective

Biodesalination: Can Nature Help Solve the Global Freshwater Crisis?

  • Clement Nyadroh *,   
  • Tajalli Keshavarz,   
  • Godfrey Kyazze

Received: 29 Nov 2025 | Revised: 02 Apr 2026 | Accepted: 02 Apr 2026 | Published: 23 Apr 2026

Abstract

Water scarcity is a pressing global challenge affecting over 2.2 billion people. The increasing demand for freshwater, driven by population growth, water pollution, industrialisation, urbanisation and climate change, has intensified pressure on conventional freshwater sources. With over 97% of Earth’s water stored in oceans, desalination of seawater has become an increasingly attractive strategy to augment water supply, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions. Conventional desalination technologies, including reverse osmosis (RO), multi-stage flash distillation, multi-effect distillation, and electrodialysis, have demonstrated high efficacy in converting saline water into potable water. However, these systems are associated with several critical drawbacks, including high energy consumption, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, substantial operational and capital costs, and the generation of concentrated brine, which can severely impact marine ecosystems when discharged untreated. For instance, RO plants typically consume 3–4 kWh/m3, while thermal desalination approaches may require 10–15 kWh/m3. Furthermore, fossil-fuel driven desalination contributes approximately 0.3–1.7 kg CO2 per m3 of water produced, highlighting the urgent need for more sustainable and energy-efficient desalination solutions. Biodesalination has emerged as a promising alternative, harnessing biological systems and bioinspired mechanisms for salt removal. This paper explores the principles, mechanisms, recent advances, and prospects of biodesalination as a sustainable approach. These include: (i) aquaporin-based biomimetic membranes that offer exceptional water permeability and selectivity; (ii) microalgal systems such as Chlorella vulgaris and Arthrospira platensis capable of 28–82% salt removal through biosorption and bioaccumulation; (iii) genetically engineered cyanobacteria with enhanced ion-exchange capacities; (iv) halophilic microorganisms capable of thriving in high-salinity environments; (v) halophyte-based phytodesalination; and (vi) microbial desalination cells (MDCs), which integrate desalination with wastewater treatment and bioelectricity generation (achieving up to 1.8 kWh/m3). Biodesalination offers a low-energy, sustainable alternative to tackle the global freshwater crisis. Leveraging biological and nature-driven processes alongside engineering innovations and data-driven optimisation and scale-up, it can complement or partially replace conventional desalination, contributing to achieving the UN Sustainable Development Goal 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation).

Graphical Abstract

Image Viewer
Open in new tab
Download Image

References 

  • 1.

    UN World Water Development Report 2014. Available online: https://www.unwater.org/publications/un-world-water-development-report-2014 (accessed on 31 December 2023).

  • 2.

    Michalak, A.M.; Xia, J.; Brdjanovic, D.; et al. The Frontiers of Water and Sanitation. Nat Water 2023, 1, 10–18. https://doi.org/10.1038/s44221-022-00020-1.

  • 3.

    Rosińska, W.; Jurasz, J.; Przestrzelska, K.; et al. Climate Change’s Ripple Effect on Water Supply Systems and the Water-Energy Nexus—A Review. Water Resour. Ind. 2024, 32, 100266. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wri.2024.100266.

  • 4.

    Elimelech, M.; Phillip, W.A. The Future of Seawater Desalination: Energy, Technology, and the Environment. Science 2011, 333, 712–717. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1200488.

  • 5.

    Olabi, A.G.; Elsaid, K.; Rabaia, M.K.H.; et al. Waste Heat-Driven Desalination Systems: Perspective. Energy 2020, 209, 118373. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2020.118373.

  • 6.

    Taheri, R.; Razmjou, A.; Szekely, G.; et al. Biodesalination—On Harnessing the Potential of Nature’s Desalination Processes. Bioinspir. Biomim. 2016, 11, 041001. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-3190/11/4/041001.

  • 7.

    Caldera, U.; Breyer, C. Learning Curve for Seawater Reverse Osmosis Desalination Plants: Capital Cost Trend of the Past, Present, and Future. Water Resour. Res. 2017, 53, 10523–10538. https://doi.org/10.1002/2017WR021402.

  • 8.

    Seawater Reverse Osmosis (SWRO) Desalination Technology: Comprehensive Analysis of Latest Membrane Innovations, Capital and Operating Cost Economics, and Performance Optimization Strategies. Available online: https://supra-international.com/insights/seawater-reverse-osmosis-swro-desalination-technology-comprehensive-analysis-of-latest-membrane-innovations-capital-and-operating-cost-economics-and-performance-optimization-strategies (accessed on 1 March 2026).

  • 9.

    Zhang, G.; Wang, X. Seawater Desalination System Driven by Sustainable Energy: A Comprehensive Review. Energies 2024, 17, 5706. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17225706.

  • 10.

    Zong, Z.; Daoud, O.; Hankins, N.P.; et al. Valorising Desalination Brine for Green Cement Production: Toward Mitigating Global CO2 Emissions. Water Res 2025, 284, 123930. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2025.123930.

  • 11.

    Rabigh 3 IWP—Start-Up. Available online: https://www.sidem-desalination.com/newsroom/news/rabigh-3-iwp-start (accessed on 22 April 2026).

  • 12.

    UN. The 17 Goals. Available online: https://sdgs.un.org/goals (accessed on 11 November 2025).

  • 13.

    Mirzaei, M.; Jazini, M.; Aminiershad, G.; et al. Biodesalination of Saline Aquaculture Wastewater with Simultaneous Nutrient Removal and Biomass Production Using the Microalgae Arthrospira and Dunaliella in a Circular Economy Approach. Desalination 2024, 581, 117564. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2024.117564.

  • 14.

    Arévalo, J.; Zamora, P.; Mena, V.F.; et al. Design of the MIDES Plant. In Microbial Desalination Cells for Low Energy Drinking Water; IWA: London, UK, 2021. https://doi.org/10.2166/9781789062120_0093.

  • 15.

    Salinas-Rodríguez, S.G.; Arévalo, J.; Ortiz, J.M.; et al. (Eds.) Microbial Desalination Cells for Low Energy Drinking Water; IWA Publishing: London, UK, 2021; ISBN 978-1-78906-212-0.

  • 16.

    Ahmed, M.E.; Zafar, A.M.; Hamouda, M.A.; et al. Biodesalination Research Trends: A Bibliometric Analysis and Recent Developments. Sustainability 2023, 15, 16. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15010016.

  • 17.

    Jamali, M.; Bavi, O. Aquaporin Channels in Desalination: Mechanical Properties and Operational Load Analysis. Desalination 2025, 594, 118245. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2024.118245.

  • 18.

    Meng, X.; Yi, F.; Qi, Y.; et al. Bioinspired Artificial Water Channels-COF Membranes for Enhanced Desalination of Brackish Water. J. Membr. Sci. 2025, 723, 123942. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2025.123942.

  • 19.

    Aquaporin. About. Available online: https://aquaporin.com/about/ (accessed on 11 November 2025).

  • 20.

    Qi, S.; Wang, R.; Chaitra, G.K.M.; et al. Aquaporin-Based Biomimetic Reverse Osmosis Membranes: Stability and Long Term Performance. J. Membr. Sci. 2016, 508, 94–103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2016.02.013.

  • 21.

    Azarafza, A.; Islam, M.A.; Golpazirsorkheh, Y.; et al. Aquaporin-Based Biomimetic Membranes for Low Energy Water Desalination and Separation Applications. Adv. Funct. Mater. 2023, 33, 2213326. https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202213326.

  • 22.

    Mustafa, S.; Bhatti, H.N.; Maqbool, M.; et al. Microalgae Biosorption, Bioaccumulation and Biodegradation Efficiency for the Remediation of Wastewater and Carbon Dioxide Mitigation: Prospects, Challenges and Opportunities. J. Water Process Eng. 2021, 41, 102009. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwpe.2021.102009.

  • 23.

    Elshobary, M.E.; Sanjari, R.; Littmann, S.; et al. Enhanced Biological Desalination by Arthrospira Platensis: Role of Extracellular Polymeric Substances in Ion Adsorption and Salt Removal. J. Environ. Manag. 2026, 401, 128936. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2026.128936.

  • 24.

    Singh, S.P.; Singh, P. Effect of Temperature and Light on the Growth of Algae Species: A Review. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2015, 50, 431–444. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.05.024.

  • 25.

    Gao, L.; Liu, G.; Zamyadi, A.; et al. Life-Cycle Cost Analysis of a Hybrid Algae-Based Biological Desalination—Low Pressure Reverse Osmosis System. Water Res 2021, 195, 116957. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2021.116957.

  • 26.

    Abou-Elela, S.I.; Kamel, M.M.; Fawzy, M.E. Biological Treatment of Saline Wastewater Using a Salt-Tolerant Microorganism. Desalination 2010, 250, 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2009.03.022.

  • 27.

    Gilani, I.E.; Hosseini, H.; Al-Ghouti, M.A.; et al. Microalgal-Based Desalination Brine Remediation: Achievements, Challenges, and Future Research Trends. Environ. Technol. Innov. 2024, 34, 103592. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eti.2024.103592.

  • 28.

    Cyanotech. Fulfilling the Promise of WHOLE HEALTH through Hawaiian Microalgae. Available online: https://www.cyanotech.com/ (accessed on 22 April 2026).

  • 29.

    Wei, J.; Gao, L.; Shen, G.; et al. The Role of Adsorption in Microalgae Biological Desalination: Salt Removal from Brackish Water Using Scenedesmus Obliquus. Desalination 2020, 493, 114616. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2020.114616.

  • 30.

    Balasubramaniyan, M.; Kasiraman, D.; Amirtham, S. Chlorella Vulgaris in Biodesalination: A Sustainable Future from Seawater to Freshwater. Mar Dev 2024, 2, 7. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44312-024-00019-0.

  • 31.

    Hassan, M.K.; Abou Elkheir, W.; Hashem, A.I.; et al. Artificial Seawater Desalination and Biodiesel Production Using Some Microalgal Species. Egypt. J. Aquat. Biol. Fish. 2023, 27, 1181. https://doi.org/10.21608/ejabf.2023.315215.

  • 32.

    Ghobashy, M.O.I.; Bahattab, O.; Alatawi, A.; et al. A Novel Approach for the Biological Desalination of Major Anions in Seawater Using Three Microalgal Species: A Kinetic Study. Sustainability 2022, 14, 7018. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14127018.

  • 33.

    Zafar, A.M.; Javed, M.A.; Aly Hassan, A.; et al. Biodesalination Using Halophytic Cyanobacterium Phormidium Keutzingianum from Brackish to the Hypersaline Water. Chemosphere 2022, 307, 136082. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.136082.

  • 34.

    Blumwald, E.; Mehlhorn, R.J.; Packer, L. Ionic Osmoregulation during Salt Adaptation of the Cyanobacterium Synechococcus 6311. Plant Physiol. 1983, 73, 377–380. https://doi.org/10.1104/pp.73.2.377.

  • 35.

    Hagemann, M. Molecular Biology of Cyanobacterial Salt Acclimation. FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 2011, 35, 87–123. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1574-6976.2010.00234.x.

  • 36.

    Minas, K.; Karunakaran, E.; Bond, T.; et al. Biodesalination: An Emerging Technology for Targeted Removal of Na+ and Cl− from Seawater by Cyanobacteria. Desalination Water Treat. 2015, 55, 2647–2668. https://doi.org/10.1080/19443994.2014.940647.

  • 37.

    Waditee, R.; Hibino, T.; Nakamura, T.; et al. Overexpression of a Na+/H+ Antiporter Confers Salt Tolerance on a Freshwater Cyanobacterium, Making It Capable of Growth in Sea Water. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2002, 99, 4109–4114. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.052576899.

  • 38.

    Aslam, A.; Kanwal, F.; Javied, S.; et al. Microbial Biosorption: A Sustainable Approach for Metal Removal and Environmental Remediation. Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2025, 22, 13245–13276. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-025-06611-1.

  • 39.

    Galinytė, D.; Balčiūnaitė-Murzienė, G.; Karosienė, J.; et al. Determination of Heavy Metal Content: Arsenic, Cadmium, Mercury, and Lead in Cyano-Phycocyanin Isolated from the Cyanobacterial Biomass. Plants 2023, 12, 3150. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12173150.

  • 40.

    Mostafa, A.M.A.; Hamed, S.M.; Hameed, M.S.A.; et al. Bio-Desalination of Seawater Using Cyanobacteria–Plant Biomass Hybrid System: Experimental Investigations and Sustainable Prospects. Beni-Suef Univ. J. Basic Appl. Sci. 2026, 15, 21. https://doi.org/10.1186/s43088-025-00724-9.

  • 41.

    Linekha, R.; Jeno, J.G.A.; Abirami, K.; et al. Halophiles and Their Adaptations: A Comprehensive Review on Recent Progress and Prospects in Biodesalination Applications. CLEAN—Soil Air Water 2024, 52, 2300260. https://doi.org/10.1002/clen.202300260.

  • 42.

    Beidokhti, M.Z.; Kebria, D.Y. Biodesalination and Biodegradation of Crude Oil in Aqueous Solutions by Halobacillus Halophilus. Desalination Water Treat. 2021, 243, 180–186. https://doi.org/10.5004/dwt.2021.27884.

  • 43.

    Halophytes as Effective Tool for Phytodesalination and Land Reclamation. In Frontiers in Plant-Soil Interaction; Academic Press: Cambridge, MA, USA, 2021; pp. 459–494.

  • 44.

    Khondoker, M.; Mandal, S.; Gurav, R.; et al. Freshwater Shortage, Salinity Increase, and Global Food Production: A Need for Sustainable Irrigation Water Desalination—A Scoping Review. Earth 2023, 4, 223–240. https://doi.org/10.3390/earth4020012.

  • 45.

    Farooqi, Z.U.R.; Zafar, A.; Ameen, S.; et al. Green Technologies for Saline Water Treatment. In Removal of Pollutants from Saline Water; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2021.

  • 46.

    Yusuf, A.O.; Alabi, A.; Eniola, J.O.; et al. Biodesalination: A Comprehensive Review of Recent Advances. Desalination 2025, 615, 119250. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2025.119250.

  • 47.

    Parida, A.K.; Jha, B. Salt Tolerance Mechanisms in Mangroves: A Review. Trees 2010, 24, 199–217. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00468-010-0417-x.

  • 48.

    Kyazze, G. Four Ways Microbial Fuel Cells Might Revolutionise Electricity Production in the Future. Available online: http://theconversation.com/four-ways-microbial-fuel-cells-might-revolutionise-electricity-production-in-the-future-152184 (accessed on 11 November 2025).

  • 49.

    Maheshwari, K.; Sogani, M.; Syed, Z.; et al. Microbial Desalination Cells in Brackish RO Reject Treatment: Challenges and Opportunities. Desalination 2025, 613, 119022. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2025.119022.

  • 50.

    Dongre, A.; Kothari, S.L.; Shami, A.; et al. Development of Microbial Desalination Cells for the Treatment of Reverse Osmosis Reject Water: A New Benchtop Approach. Environ. Technol. Innov. 2024, 35, 103664. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eti.2024.103664.

  • 51.

    Farahani, H.; Haghighi, M.; Behvand Usefi, M.M.; et al. Overview of Sustainable Water Treatment Using Microbial Fuel Cells and Microbial Desalination Cells. Sustainability 2024, 16, 10458. https://doi.org/10.3390/su162310458.

  • 52.

    Abubakari, Z.I.; Mensah, M.; Buamah, R.; et al. Assessment of the Electricity Generation, Desalination and Wastewater Treatment Capacity of a Plant Microbial Desalination Cell (PMDC). Int. J. Energy Water Resour. 2019, 3, 213–218. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42108-019-00030-y.

  • 53.

    Zhang, B.; He, Z. Integrated Salinity Reduction and Water Recovery in an Osmotic Microbial Desalination Cell. RSC Adv. 2012, 2, 3265–3269. https://doi.org/10.1039/C2RA20193C.

  • 54.

    Forrestal, C.; Xu, P.; Ren, Z. Sustainable Desalination Using a Microbial Capacitive Desalination Cell. Energy Environ. Sci. 2012, 5, 7161–7167. https://doi.org/10.1039/C2EE21121A.

  • 55.

    Chen, X.; Xia, X.; Liang, P.; et al. Stacked Microbial Desalination Cells to Enhance Water Desalination Efficiency. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2011, 45, 2465–2470. https://doi.org/10.1021/es103406m.

  • 56.

    Jacobson, K.S.; Drew, D.M.; He, Z. Efficient Salt Removal in a Continuously Operated Upflow Microbial Desalination Cell with an Air Cathode. Bioresour. Technol. 2011, 102, 376–380. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2010.06.030.

  • 57.

    Prakash, S.; Ponnusamy, K.; Naina Mohamed, S. An Insight on Biocathode Microbial Desalination Cell: Current Challenges and Prospects. Int. J. Energy Res. 2022, 46, 8546–8559. https://doi.org/10.1002/er.7748.

  • 58.

    Microbial Desalination for Low Energy Drinking Water—MIDES. Available online: https://water.imdea.org/microbial-desalination-low-energy-drinking-water-mides/ (accessed on 11 November 2025).

  • 59.

    Nyadroh, C.; Keshavarz, T.; Kyazze, G. The Effect of Immobilisation of Electroactive Bacteria as 3D-Printed Bioelectrodes on Water Desalination in Microbial Desalination Cells. Desalination Water Treat. 2025, 322, 101235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dwt.2025.101235.

  • 60.

    Mishra, R.K.; Chandra, S.; Thapa, B.S.; et al. Borophene + Fe3O4 Novel Nanocomposite as an Efficient Anode Catalyst for Microbial Desalination Cells Treating RO Reject Water. BioNanoSci. 2025, 16, 58. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12668-025-02327-1.

  • 61.

    Sonu, K.; Sogani, M.; Syed, Z.; et al. Rice Husk-Modified Ceramic Membrane for Microbial Desalination Cell. Biomass Conv. Bioref. 2025, 15, 11097–11104. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13399-024-05958-8.

  • 62.

    Liu, C.; Ju, R.; Liu, Z.; et al. Unveiling the Mechanism of Comparative Cathodic Reactions on Salt Removal and Electrochemical Behavior in Microbial Desalination Cell for High-Strength Wastewater. Results Eng. 2025, 27, 106145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2025.106145.

  • 63.

    Zhang, J.; Yuan, H.; Deng, Y.; et al. Life Cycle Assessment of a Microbial Desalination Cell for Sustainable Wastewater Treatment and Saline Water Desalination. J. Clean. Prod. 2018, 200, 900–910. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.07.197.

  • 64.

    Liu, F.; Moustafa, H.; El-Din Hassouna, M.S.; et al. Resource Recovery from Wastewater Can Be an Application Niche of Microbial Desalination Cells. Environ. Int. 2020, 142, 105855. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2020.105855.

  • 65.

    Zafar, A.M.; Mohamed, B.A.; Wang, Q.; et al. Life cycle analysis of seawater biodesalination using algae. Desalination 2024, 578, 117433. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2024.117433.

  • 66.

    Gao, L.; Zhang, J.; Liu, G. Life cycle assessment for algae-based desalination system. Desalination 2021, 512, 115148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2021.115148.

  • 67.

    Pandit, R.R.; Deshmukh, S.S.; Khatod, K.J.; et al. Efficiency, cost, and carbon footprint considerations in analysing hybrid solar thermal-photovoltaic desalination systems. Desalination Water Treat. 2026, 325, 101606. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dwt.2025.101606.

  • 68.

    Zahid, M.; Savla, N.; Pandit, S.; et al. Microbial desalination cell: Desalination through conserving energy. Desalination 2022, 521, 115381. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2021.115381.

  • 69.

    Dargam, F.C.; Perz, E.; Bergmann, S.; et al. Operational Decision-Making on Desalination Plants: From Process Modelling and Simulation to Monitoring and Automated Control with Machine Learning. Int. J. Decis. Support Syst. Technol. 2023, 15, 1–20. https://doi.org/10.4018/IJDSST.315639.

  • 70.

    Microbial Desalination Cells (MDC). Available online: https://www.desalinationlab.com/microbial-desalination-cells-mdc/ (accessed on 1 March 2026).

  • 71.

    Kolachalama, D.; Krishnamoorthy, S. Harnessing microalgae for biodesalination and CO2 sequestration toward integrated water-carbon solutions. J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 2025, 13, 120214. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2025.120214.

  • 72.

    Durgun, Y. Real-time water quality monitoring using AI-enabled sensors: Detection of contaminants and UV disinfection analysis in smart urban water systems. J. King Saud Univ.-Sci. 2024, 36, 103409. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jksus.2024.103409.

  • 73.

    Manesh, M.H.K.; Davadgaran, S.; Rabeti, S.A.M. Experimental study of biological wastewater recovery using microbial fuel cell and application of reliability and machine learning to predict the system behavior. Energy Convers. Manag. 2024, 314, 118658. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2024.118658.

  • 74.

    Yaghoubi, E.; Yaghoubi, E.; Khamees, A.; et al. A systematic review and meta-analysis of machine learning, deep learning, and ensemble learning approaches in predicting EV charging behavior. Eng. Appl. Artif. Intell. 2024, 135, 108789. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engappai.2024.108789.

  • 75.

    Manesh, M.H.K.; Saneetaheri, M.; Rabeti, S.A.M. Comprehensive experimental study on microbial desalination cells for biological wastewater recovery, seawater brine treatment, and simultaneous power generation: Applications of machine learning and thermal image processing. Sustain. Energy Technol. Assess. 2025, 83, 104608. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seta.2025.104608.

  • 76.

    Abdollahfard, Y.; Sedighi, M.; Ghasemi, M. A New Approach for Improving Microbial Fuel Cell Performance Using Artificial Intelligence. Sustainability 2023, 15, 1312. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15021312.

  • 77.

    Oyedeji, M.O.; Alharbi, A.; Aldhaifallah, M.; et al. Optimal Data-Driven Modelling of a Microbial Fuel Cell. Energies 2023, 16, 4740. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16124740.

  • 78.

    Thuyavan Yogarathinam, L.; I. Abba, S.; Usman, J.; et al. Predicting Micropollutant Removal through Nanopore-Sized Membranes Using Several Machine-Learning Approaches Based on Feature Engineering. RSC Adv. 2024, 14, 19331–19348. https://doi.org/10.1039/D4RA02475C.

  • 79.

    Shahouni, R.; Abbasi, M.; Dibaj, M.; et al. Utilising Artificial Intelligence to Predict Membrane Behaviour in Water Purification and Desalination. Water 2024, 16, 2940. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16202940.

  • 80.

    Pardo Gómez, M.E.; Park, E.; Zheng, Y.; et al. Exploring the Application of Artificial Intelligence for Bioelectrochemical Systems: A Review of Recent Research. Green Energy Resour. 2025, 3, 100141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gerr.2025.100141.

Share this article:
Download PDF
DOI
10.53941/eesus.2026.100012
Issue
Volume 2, Issue 2
How to Cite
Nyadroh, C.; Keshavarz, T.; Kyazze, G. Biodesalination: Can Nature Help Solve the Global Freshwater Crisis?. Earth: Environmental Sustainability 2026, 2 (2), 169–182. https://doi.org/10.53941/eesus.2026.100012.
RIS
BibTex
Copyright & License
article copyright Image
Copyright (c) 2026 by the authors.