RE/
Articles/
2605003879
  • Open Access
  • Review

Mechanistic and Engineering Perspectives on Coupled Nanoscale Zero-Valent Iron-Organohalide-Respiring Bacteria Remediation of Trichloroethylene-Contaminated Groundwater

  • Airan Guo 1,   
  • Haijuan Yu 1,   
  • Tielong Li 2,   
  • Yi Yang 3,   
  • Qingyu Li 1,*,   
  • Zongming Xiu 4,*

Received: 17 Mar 2026 | Revised: 02 Apr 2026 | Accepted: 11 May 2026 | Published: 20 May 2026

Abstract

Dehalococcoides (TCE) frequently persists in groundwater due to the inherent limitations of both abiotic and biotic remediation approaches. Nanoscale zero-valent iron (nZVI) enables rapid contaminant removal but is constrained by inefficient electron utilization, parasitic hydrogen evolution, and short reactive lifetimes. In contrast, organohalide-respiring bacteria, particularly Dehalococcoides mccartyi, can achieve complete detoxification to ethene, yet are limited by strict redox conditions and electron donor availability. Recent evidence suggests that nZVI–microbial systems function as a controllable “peak shaving–detoxification relay”, in which nZVI regulates electron flux and subsurface conditions, while microbial reductive dechlorination removes toxic intermediates such as cis-DCE and vinyl chloride. This review synthesizes advances in (i) electron transfer and allocation mechanisms; (ii) material design strategies for hydrogen regulation and electron selectivity; (iii) microbial interactions under nZVI-induced conditions; and (iv) engineering implementation from laboratory to field scale. Emphasis is placed on hydrogen management, system compatibility, and stability constraints. Overall, effective coupling relies on balancing electron flux and maintaining a sustainable reductive microenvironment rather than maximizing material reactivity. Future work should focus on defining operational windows and developing engineering control strategies for predictable groundwater remediation.

References 

  • 1.

    Lash, L. Trichloroethylene: An Update on an Environmental Contaminant with Multiple Health Effects. Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 2025, 65, 507–527. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-pharmtox-022724-120525.

  • 2.

    Stroo, H.F.; Leeson, A.; Marqusee, J.A.; et al. Chlorinated Ethene Source Remediation: Lessons Learned. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2012, 46, 6438–6447. https://doi.org/10.1021/es204714w.

  • 3.

    Yang, Y.; Zhang, Y.; Li, X.; et al. Roles of Dehalococcoidia Class in the Biogeochemical Cycle of Organohalides. Acta Sci. Circumstantiae 2019, 39, 3207–3214. https://doi.org/10.13671/j.hjkxxb.2019.0280.

  • 4.

    Tian, J.; Zhong, H.; Wu, Z.; et al. Metagenomic Sequencing Reveals Mechanisms of Adaptation and Biodegradation of Dechlorinating Bacteria to Trichloroethylene. J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 2024, 12, 112459. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2024.112459.

  • 5.

    Litter, M.I. A Short Review on the Preparation and Use of Iron Nanomaterials for the Treatment of Pollutants in Water and Soil. Emergent Mater. 2022, 5, 391–400. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42247-022-00355-1.

  • 6.

    Kumar, M.A.; Bae, S.; Han, S.; et al. Reductive Dechlorination of Trichloroethylene by Polyvinylpyrrolidone Stabilized Nanoscale Zerovalent Iron Particles with Ni. J. Hazard. Mater. 2017, 340, 399–406. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2017.07.030.

  • 7.

    Czinnerová, M.; Vološčuková, O.; Marková, K.; et al. Combining Nanoscale Zero-Valent Iron with Electrokinetic Treatment for Remediation of Chlorinated Ethenes and Promoting Biodegradation: A Long-Term Field Study. Water Res. 2020, 175, 115692. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2020.115692.

  • 8.

    Yuan, M.; Wang, X.; Zhao, F.; et al. Research Progress of Zero-Valent-Iron Microbial Coupled System in Remediating Contaminated Groundwater. China Environ. Sci. 2021, 41, 1119–1131. https://doi.org/10.19674/j.cnki.issn1000-6923.2021.0123.

  • 9.

    Xu, Y.; Wang, C.; Hou, J.; et al. Application of Zero Valent Iron Coupling with Biological Process for Wastewater Treatment: A Review. Rev. Environ. Sci. Bio Technol. 2017, 16, 667–693. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11157-017-9445-y.

  • 10.

    Xie, Y.; Dong, H.; Zeng, G.; et al. The Interactions between Nanoscale Zero-Valent Iron and Microbes in the Subsurface Environment: A Review. J. Hazard. Mater. 2017, 321, 390–407. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2016.09.028.

  • 11.

    Miyake, Y.; Sakoda, A.; Yamanashi, H.; et al. Activated Carbon Adsorption of Trichloroethylene (TCE) Vapor Stripped from TCE-Contaminated Water. Water Res. 2003, 37, 1852–1858. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0043-1354(02)00564-X.

  • 12.

    He, F.; Zhao, D.; Liu, J.; et al. Stabilization of Fe−Pd Nanoparticles with Sodium Carboxymethyl Cellulose for Enhanced Transport and Dechlorination of Trichloroethylene in Soil and Groundwater. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 2007, 46, 29–34. https://doi.org/10.1021/ie0610896.

  • 13.

    Fekete-Kertész, I.; Molnár, M.; Atkári, Á.; et al. Hydrogen Peroxide Oxidation for in Situ Remediation of Trichloroethylene—From the Laboratory to the Field. Period. Polytech. Chem. Eng. 2013, 57, 25–31. https://doi.org/10.3311/PPch.2169.

  • 14.

    Lakshmipathiraj, P.; Bhaskar Raju, G.; Sakai, Y.; et al. Studies on Electrochemical Detoxification of Trichloroethene (TCE) on Ti/IrO2–Ta2O5 Electrode from Aqueous Solution. Chem. Eng. J. 2012, 198–199, 211–218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2012.05.092.

  • 15.

    Suttinun, O.; Müller, R.; Luepromchai, E. Cometabolic Degradation of Trichloroethene by Rhodococcus sp. Strain L4 Immobilized on Plant Materials Rich in Essential Oils. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2010, 76, 4684–4690. https://doi.org/10.1128/aem.03036-09.

  • 16.

    Cui, Y.; Yang, Y.; Yan, J.; et al. Advances of Using Dehalogenimonas in Anaerobic Degradation of Chlorinated Compounds and Bioremediation of Contaminated Sites. Chin. J. Biotechnol. 2021, 37, 3565–3577. https://doi.org/10.13345/j.cjb.210209.

  • 17.

    Xiu, Z.M.; Li, T.L.; Jin, Z.H.; et al. Microbial Reductive Dechlorination of TCE with Nano Iron Serving as Electron Donor. Environ. Sci. 2009, 30, 1761–1766.

  • 18.

    Gillham, R.W.; OʼHannesin, S.F. Enhanced Degradation of Halogenated Aliphatics by Zero-Valent Iron. Groundwater 1994, 32, 958–967. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6584.1994.tb00935.x.

  • 19.

    Wang, C.-B.; Zhang, W.-X. Synthesizing Nanoscale Iron Particles for Rapid and Complete Dechlorination of TCE and PCBs. Environ. Sci. Technol. 1997, 31, 2154–2156. https://doi.org/10.1021/es970039c.

  • 20.

    Li, X.-Q.; Elliott, D.W.; Zhang, W.-X. Zero-Valent Iron Nanoparticles for Abatement of Environmental Pollutants: Materials and Engineering Aspects. Crit. Rev. Solid State Mater. Sci. 2006, 31, 111–122. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408430601057611.

  • 21.

    Summer, D.; Schöftner, P.; Watzinger, A.; et al. Inhibition and Stimulation of Two Perchloroethene Degrading Bacterial Cultures by Nano- and Micro-Scaled Zero-Valent Iron Particles. Sci. Total Environ. 2020, 722, 137802. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.137802.

  • 22.

    Tosco, T.; Petrangeli Papini, M.; Cruz Viggi, C.; et al. Nanoscale Zerovalent Iron Particles for Groundwater Remediation: A Review. J. Clean. Prod. 2014, 77, 10–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.12.026.

  • 23.

    Bae, S.; Collins, R.N.; Waite, T.D.; et al. Advances in Surface Passivation of Nanoscale Zerovalent Iron: A Critical Review. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2018, 52, 12010–12025. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.8b01734.

  • 24.

    Xu, J.; Li, H.; Lowry, G.V. Sulfidized Nanoscale Zero-Valent Iron: Tuning the Properties of This Complex Material for Efficient Groundwater Remediation. Acc. Mater. Res. 2021, 2, 420–431. https://doi.org/10.1021/accountsmr.1c00037.

  • 25.

    Garcia, A.N.; Zhang, Y.; Ghoshal, S.; et al. Recent Advances in Sulfidated Zerovalent Iron for Contaminant Transformation. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2021, 55, 8464–8483. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.1c01251.

  • 26.

    Wang, B.; Zhu, Y.; Dong, W.; et al. Unveiling the Differential Impacts of S-nZVI and nZVI on Microbial Dechlorination of Trichloroethene by Dehalococcoides. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2025, 59, 14089–14102. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.5c00497.

  • 27.

    Mohana Rangan, S.; Rao, S.; Robles, A.; et al. Decoupling Fe0 Application and Bioaugmentation in Space and Time Enables Microbial Reductive Dechlorination of Trichloroethene to Ethene: Evidence from Soil Columns. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2023, 57, 4167–4179. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.2c06433.

  • 28.

    Kocur, C.M.D.; Lomheim, L.; Boparai, H.K.; et al. Contributions of Abiotic and Biotic Dechlorination Following Carboxymethyl Cellulose Stabilized Nanoscale Zero Valent Iron Injection. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2015, 49, 8648–8656. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.5b00719.

  • 29.

    Han, Y.; Yan, W. Reductive Dechlorination of Trichloroethene by Zero-valent Iron Nanoparticles: Reactivity Enhancement through Sulfidation Treatment. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2016, 50, 12992–13001. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.6b03997.

  • 30.

    Mangayayam, M.C.; Perez, J.P.H.; Alonso-de-Linaje, V.; et al. Sulfidation Extent of Nanoscale Zerovalent Iron Controls Selectivity and Reactivity with Mixed Chlorinated Hydrocarbons in Natural Groundwater. J. Hazard. Mater. 2022, 431, 128534. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.128534.

  • 31.

    Lin, C.J.; Lo, S.L.; Liou, Y.H. Dechlorination of Trichloroethylene in Aqueous Solution by Noble Metal-Modified Iron. J. Hazard. Mater. 2004, 116, 219–228. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2004.09.005.

  • 32.

    Hou, D.; Cui, X.; Liu, M.; et al. Degradation of Trichloroethylene by Biochar Supported Nano Zero-Valent Iron (BC-nZVI): The Role of Specific Surface Area and Electrochemical Properties. Sci. Total Environ. 2024, 908, 168341. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.168341.

  • 33.

    Ahn, J.-Y.; Kim, C.; Kim, H.-S.; et al. Effects of Oxidants on in Situ Treatment of a DNAPL Source by Nanoscale Zero-Valent Iron: A Field Study. Water Res. 2016, 107, 57–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2016.10.037.

  • 34.

    Li, T.; Li, X.; Teng, Y.; et al. Phosphidation of Microscale Zero-Valent Iron (P-mZVI) for Enhanced Dechlorination of Trichloroethylene. J. Clean. Prod. 2023, 386, 135803. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.135803.

  • 35.

    Lyu, H.; Zhong, H.; Li, Z.; et al. S-ZVI@biochar Constructs a Directed Electron Transfer Channel between Dechlorinating Bacteria, Shewanella oneidensis MR-1 and Trichloroethylene. NPJ Clean Water 2024, 7, 81. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41545-024-00376-9.

  • 36.

    Lampron, K.J.; Chiu, P.C.; Cha, D.K. Reductive Dehalogenation of Chlorinated Ethenes with Elemental Iron: The Role of Microorganisms. Water Res. 2001, 35, 3077–3084. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0043-1354(01)00017-3.

  • 37.

    Wang, S.-M.; Tseng, S.-K. Reductive Dechlorination of Trichloroethylene by Combining Autotrophic Hydrogen-Bacteria and Zero-Valent Iron Particles. Bioresour. Technol. 2009, 100, 111–117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2008.05.033.

  • 38.

    Wang, S.-M.; Tseng, S.-K. Dechlorination of Trichloroethylene by Immobilized Autotrophic Hydrogen-Bacteria and Zero‑Valent Iron. J. Biosci. Bioeng. 2009, 107, 287–292. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbiosc.2008.11.010.

  • 39.

    Li, Y.; Zhao, H.-P.; Zhu, L. Iron Sulfide Enhanced the Dechlorination of Trichloroethene by Dehalococcoides mccartyi Strain 195. Front. Microbiol. 2021, 12, 665281. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2021.665281.

  • 40.

    He, F.; Zhao, D.; Paul, C. Field Assessment of Carboxymethyl Cellulose Stabilized Iron Nanoparticles for in Situ Destruction of Chlorinated Solvents in Source Zones. Water Res. 2010, 44, 2360–2370. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2009.12.041.

  • 41.

    Shanbhogue, S.S.; Bezbaruah, A.; Simsek, S.; et al. Trichloroethene Removal by Separately Encapsulated and Co-Encapsulated Bacterial Degraders and Nanoscale Zero-Valent Iron. Int. Biodeterior. Biodegrad. 2017, 125, 269–276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ibiod.2017.08.005.

  • 42.

    Su, C.; Puls, R.W.; Krug, T.A.; et al. A Two and Half-Year Performance Evaluation of a Field Test on Treatment of Source Zone Tetrachloroethene and Its Chlorinated Daughter Products Using Emulsified Zero Valent Iron Nanoparticles. Water Res. 2012, 46, 5071–5084. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2012.06.051.

  • 43.

    Sheu, Y.T.; Chen, S.C.; Chien, C.C.; et al. Application of a Long-Lasting Colloidal Substrate with pH and Hydrogen Sulfide Control Capabilities to Remediate TCE-Contaminated Groundwater. J. Hazard. Mater. 2015, 284, 222–232. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2014.11.023.

  • 44.

    Li, X.; Li, X.; Song, Y.; et al. Mechanisms of Metabolic Interactions in Microbial Communities Harboring Organohalide-Respiring Bacteria. Acta Microbiol. Sin. 2022, 62, 2226–2248. https://doi.org/10.13343/j.cnki.wsxb.20220194.

  • 45.

    Liao, H.; Wang, X.; Cui, Y.; et al. Bioinformatics Analysis of Reductive Dehalogenases. Microbiol. China 2024, 51, 5105–5120. https://doi.org/10.13344/j.microbiol.china.230801.

  • 46.

    Krajmalnik-Brown, R.; Hölscher, T.; Thomson Ivy, N.; et al. Genetic Identification of a Putative Vinyl Chloride Reductase in Dehalococcoides sp. Strain BAV1. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2004, 70, 6347–6351. https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.70.10.6347-6351.2004.

  • 47.

    He, J.; Ritalahti, K.M.; Aiello, M.R.; et al. Complete Detoxification of Vinyl Chloride by an Anaerobic Enrichment Culture and Identification of the Reductively Dechlorinating Population as a Dehalococcoides Species. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2003, 69, 996–1003. https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.69.2.996-1003.2003.

  • 48.

    Yan, J.; Wang, J.; Villalobos Solis, M.I.; et al. Respiratory Vinyl Chloride Reductive Dechlorination to Ethene in TceA-Expressing Dehalococcoides mccartyi. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2021, 55, 4831–4841. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.0c07354.

  • 49.

    Wang, J.; Li, X.; Song, Y.; et al. Effects of Environmental Factors on Anaerobic Microbial Dehalogenation: A Review. Microbiol. China 2022, 49, 4357–4381. https://doi.org/10.13344/j.microbiol.china.220121.

  • 50.

    Dong, H.; Li, L.; Lu, Y.; et al. Integration of Nanoscale Zero-Valent Iron and Functional Anaerobic Bacteria for Groundwater Remediation: A Review. Environ. Int. 2019, 124, 265–277. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2019.01.030.

  • 51.

    Scherer, M.M.; Richter, S.; Valentine, R.L.; et al. Chemistry and Microbiology of Permeable Reactive Barriers for in Situ Groundwater Clean Up. Crit. Rev. Microbiol. 2000, 26, 221–264. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408410091154237.

  • 52.

    Su, G.; Wang, Y.; Ma, B.; et al. Nanoscale Zero-Valent Iron Changes Microbial Co-Occurrence Pattern in Pentachlorophenol-Contaminated Soil. J. Hazard. Mater. 2022, 438, 129482. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.129482.

  • 53.

    Fu, F.; Dionysiou, D.D.; Liu, H. The Use of Zero-Valent Iron for Groundwater Remediation and Wastewater Treatment: A Review. J. Hazard. Mater. 2014, 267, 194–205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2013.12.062.

  • 54.

    Ri, C.; Li, F.; Mun, H.; et al. Ball‑Milled Fe0/FeS2 Enhanced Interaction of Shewanella oneidensis MR-1 with Anaerobic Microbial Community: Impact on 2,4‑Dichloronitrobenzene Reduction and Methane Yield. Chem. Eng. J. 2023, 452, 139086. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2022.139086.

  • 55.

    Wu, J.; Zhong, Y.; Deng, Y.; et al. Sustainable Abiotic-Biotic Dechlorination of Perchloroethene with Sulfidated Nanoscale Zero-Valent Iron as Electron Donor Source. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2024, 58, 20931–20941. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.3c10948.

  • 56.

    Wang, W.; Gong, T.; Li, H.; et al. The Multi-Process Reaction Model and Underlying Mechanisms of 2,4,6-Trichlorophenol Removal in Lab-Scale Biochar-Microorganism Augmented ZVI PRBs and Field-Scale PRBs Performance. Water Res. 2022, 217, 118422. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2022.118422.

  • 57.

    Zhong, H.; Lyu, H.; Wang, Z.; et al. Application of Dissimilatory Iron-Reducing Bacteria for the Remediation of Soil and Water Polluted with Chlorinated Organic Compounds: Progress, Mechanisms, and Directions. Chemosphere 2024, 352, 141505. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2024.141505.

  • 58.

    Kumar, N.; Millot, R.; Battaglia-Brunet, F.; et al. Microbial and Mineral Evolution in Zero Valent Iron-Based Permeable Reactive Barriers during Long-Term Operations. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2016, 23, 5960–5968. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-015-5712-z.

  • 59.

    Kocur, C.M.D.; Lomheim, L.; Molenda, O.; et al. Long-Term Field Study of Microbial Community and Dechlorinating Activity Following Carboxymethyl Cellulose-Stabilized Nanoscale Zero-Valent Iron Injection. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2016, 50, 7658–7670. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.6b01745.

  • 60.

    Rangan, S.M.; Mouti, A.; LaPat-Polasko, L.; et al. Synergistic Zerovalent Iron (Fe0) and Microbiological Trichloroethene and Perchlorate Reductions Are Determined by the Concentration and Speciation of Fe. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2020, 54, 14422–14431. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.0c05052.

  • 61.

    Xiu, Z.-M.; Gregory, K.B.; Lowry, G.V.; et al. Effect of Bare and Coated Nanoscale Zerovalent Iron on tceA and vcrA Gene Expression in Dehalococcoides spp. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2010, 44, 7647–7651. https://doi.org/10.1021/es101786y.

  • 62.

    Xu, W.; Li, Z.; Shi, S.; et al. Carboxymethyl Cellulose Stabilized and Sulfidated Nanoscale Zero-Valent Iron: Characterization and Trichloroethene Dechlorination. Appl. Catal. B Environ. 2020, 262, 118303. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apcatb.2019.118303.

  • 63.

    Cai, S.; Chen, B.; Qiu, X.; et al. Sulfidation of Zero-Valent Iron by Direct Reaction with Elemental Sulfur in Water: Efficiencies, Mechanism, and Dechlorination of Trichloroethylene. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2021, 55, 645–654. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.0c05397.

  • 64.

    Li, T.; Teng, Y.; Li, X.; et al. Sulfidated Microscale Zero-Valent Iron/Reduced Graphene Oxide Composite (S-mZVI/rGO) for Enhanced Degradation of Trichloroethylene: The Role of Hydrogen Spillover. J. Hazard. Mater. 2023, 446, 130657. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.130657.

  • 65.

    Li, Y.; Wen, L.-L.; Zhao, H.-P.; et al. Addition of Shewanella oneidensis MR-1 to the Dehalococcoides-Containing Culture Enhances the Trichloroethene Dechlorination. Environ. Int. 2019, 133, 105245. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2019.105245.

  • 66.

    Islam, S.; Redwan, A.; Millerick, K.; et al. Effect of Copresence of Zerovalent Iron and Sulfate Reducing Bacteria on Reductive Dechlorination of Trichloroethylene. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2021, 55, 4851–4861. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.0c07702.

  • 67.

    Min, J.-E.; Park, I.S.; Ko, S.; et al. Effect of Phosphate and Sediment Bacteria on Trichloroethylene Dechlorination with Zero Valent Iron. J. Environ. Sci. Health Part A 2009, 44, 362–369. https://doi.org/10.1080/10934520802659703.

  • 68.

    OʼCarroll, D.; Sleep, B.; Krol, M.; et al. Nanoscale Zero Valent Iron and Bimetallic Particles for Contaminated Site Remediation. Adv. Water Resour. 2013, 51, 104–122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.advwatres.2012.02.005.

  • 69.

    Naval Facilities Engineering Command. Best Practices for Injection and Distribution of Amendments for in Situ Remediation; NAVFAC: Port Hueneme, CA, USA, 2013.

  • 70.

    Muller, K.A.; Johnson, C.D.; Bagwell, C.E.; et al. Methods for Delivery and Distribution of Amendments for Subsurface Remediation: A Critical Review. Groundw. Monit. Remediat. 2021, 41, 46–75. https://doi.org/10.1111/gwmr.12418.

  • 71.

    Interstate Technology & Regulatory Council (ITRC). Optimizing Injection Strategies and in Situ Remediation Performance; ITRC: Washington, DC, USA, 2020.

  • 72.

    Wiedemeier, T.H.; Swanson, M.A.; Moutoux, D.E.; et al. Technical Protocol for Evaluating Natural Attenuation of Chlorinated Solvents in Ground Water; Environmental Protection Agency: Washington, DC, USA, 1998.

  • 73.

    Czinnerova, M.; Nguyen, N.H.A.; Nemecek, J.; et al. In Situ Pilot Application of nZVI Embedded in Activated Carbon for Remediation of Chlorinated Ethene-Contaminated Groundwater: Effect on Microbial Communities. Environ. Sci. Eur. 2020, 32, 154. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12302-020-00434-2.

  • 74.

    Ri, C.; Li, F.; Mun, H.; et al. Impact of Different Zero Valent Iron-Based Particles on Anaerobic Microbial Dechlorination of 2,4‑Dichlorophenol: Comparison of Dechlorination Performance and the Underlying Mechanism. J. Hazard. Mater. 2023, 458, 131881. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.131881.

  • 75.

    Liu, N.; Liu, J.; Wang, H.; et al. Microbes Team with Nanoscale Zero-Valent Iron: A Robust Route for Degradation of Recalcitrant Pollutants. J. Environ. Sci. 2022, 118, 140–146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jes.2021.12.037.

  • 76.

    Wang, S.; Chen, S.; Wang, Y.; et al. Integration of Organohalide-Respiring Bacteria and Nanoscale Zero-Valent Iron (Bio-nZVI-RD): A Perfect Marriage for the Remediation of Organohalide Pollutants? Biotechnol. Adv. 2016, 34, 1384–1395. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biotechadv.2016.10.004.

  • 77.

    Lin, W.H.; Chien, C.C.; Lu, C.W.; et al. Growth Inhibition of Methanogens for the Enhancement of TCE Dechlorination. Sci. Total Environ. 2021, 787, 147648. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.147648.

  • 78.

    Wang, J.; Li, X.; Jin, H.; et al. CO-Driven Electron and Carbon Flux Fuels Synergistic Microbial Reductive Dechlorination. Microbiome 2024, 12, 154. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40168-024-01869-y.

  • 79.

    Li, W.; Liu, G.; Liu, J.; et al. Characterization of Reductive Dechlorination of Chlorinated Ethylenes by Anaerobic Consortium. Environ. Sci. 2024, 45, 4409–4419. https://doi.org/10.13227/j.hjkx.202302134.

  • 80.

    Lee, M.; Wells, E.; Wong, Y.K.; et al. Relative Contributions of Dehalobacter and Zerovalent Iron in the Degradation of Chlorinated Methanes. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2015, 49, 4481–4489. https://doi.org/10.1021/es5052364.

  • 81.

    Ma, J.; Li, Y.; Zhang, X.; et al. Modified Nano Zero-Valent Iron Coupling Microorganisms to Degrade BDE-209: Degradation Pathways and Microbial Responses. J. Hazard. Mater. 2024, 465, 133378. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.133378.

  • 82.

    Salom, D.; Fernández-Verdejo, D.; Moral-Vico, J.; et al. Combining Nanoscale Zero-Valent Iron and Anaerobic Dechlorinating Bacteria to Degrade Chlorinated Methanes and 1,2-Dichloroethane. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2023, 30, 45231–45243. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-25376-z.

  • 83.

    Chen, H.; Qian, L. Performance of Field Demonstration Nanoscale Zero-Valent Iron in Groundwater Remediation: A Review. Sci. Total Environ. 2024, 912, 169268. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.169268.

  • 84.

    Liu, N.; Li, H.; Li, M.; et al. Oxygen Exposure Effects on the Dechlorinating Activities of a Trichloroethene-Dechlorination Microbial Consortium. Bioresour. Technol. 2017, 240, 98–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2017.02.112.

  • 85.

    Key, T.A.; Sorsby, S.J.; Wang, Y.; et al. Framework for Field-Scale Application of Molecular Biological Tools to Support Natural and Enhanced Bioremediation. Front. Microbiol. 2022, 13, 958742. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2022.958742.

Share this article:
Download PDF
Issue
Volume 1, Issue 1
How to Cite
Guo, A.; Yu, H.; Li, T.; Yang, Y.; Li, Q.; Xiu, Z. Mechanistic and Engineering Perspectives on Coupled Nanoscale Zero-Valent Iron-Organohalide-Respiring Bacteria Remediation of Trichloroethylene-Contaminated Groundwater. Remediation Ecology 2026, 1 (1), 3.
RIS
BibTex
Copyright & License
article copyright Image
Copyright (c) 2026 by the authors.