BCCN/
Articles/
2608005043
  • Open Access
  • Article

Comparative GC-MS Metabolite Profiling and Physicochemical Characterization of Eichhornia crassipes Biomass Fractions across Diverse Aquatic Habitats

  • Sagar Aditya 1, *,   
  • Ajay S. Kalamdhad 1, 2

Received: 30 Jun 2026 | Revised: 04 Aug 2026 | Accepted: 27 Aug 2026 | Published: 18 Sep 2026

Abstract

The rapid spread of the aquatic macrophyte water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) has become a major ecological concern. This study evaluated the physicochemical, structural, and chemical characteristics of water hyacinth biomass collected from four different environments (freshwater bodies, near Boragaon dump sites, agricultural run-off areas, and industrial areas). The physicochemical properties varied across the sampling locations and plant parts. Samples collected from the Boragaon area showed the total nitrogen content ranged from 1.99% to 3.68%. Organic matter content ranged from 81.04% to 81.39% in leaf and stem samples from the industrial area, whereas root and whole-plant samples from Boragaon showed values ranging from 76.69% to 84.30%. The highest total phosphorus content (3585 mg/kg) was recorded in stem samples from Boragaon, while the lowest value (315 mg/kg) was found in root samples from the freshwater body. Heavy metal analysis also showed differences among the sampling locations, with the highest Cd concentration (1.09 mg/kg) recorded in whole-plant samples collected from the industrial area. These variations indicate that the surrounding environmental conditions and degree of pollution may influence the composition and potential utilization of E. crassipes biomass. Fourier Transform infrared (FTIR) analysis showed variations in polysaccharide-related bands, aromatic structures, and oxygen-containing functional groups in the different samples. Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis further identified a broad spectrum of fatty acid derivatives, phenolic compounds, hydrocarbons, and organic acids, with their occurrence varying across sampling locations. These findings provide a location-specific basis for assessing the suitability of water hyacinth biomass for various industrial bioresource uses and stress the importance of accounting for environmental conditions during biomass evaluation.

References 

  • 1.

    Gupta, A.K.; Yadav, D. Biological control of water hyacinth. Environ. Contam. Rev. 2020, 3, 37–39. https://doi.org/10.26480/ecr.01.2020.37.39.

  • 2.

    Vymazal, J. Removal of nutrients in various types of constructed wetlands. Sci. Total Environ. 2007, 380, 48–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2006.09.014.

  • 3.

    Lancar, L.; Krake, K. Aquatic Weeds & Their Management; International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage: New Delhi, India, 2002.

  • 4.

    Singh, J.; Kalamdhad, A.S. Concentration and speciation of heavy metals during water hyacinth composting. Bioresour. Technol. 2012, 124, 169–179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2012.08.043.

  • 5.

    Williams, A.E. Water hyacinth. In Van Nostrand’s Scientific Encyclopedia; John Wiley & Sons: New York, NY, USA, 2006. https://doi.org/10.1002/0471743984.vse7463.pub2.

  • 6.

    Gupta, B.; Huang, B. Mechanism of salinity tolerance in plants: Physiological, biochemical, and molecular characterization. Int. J. Genom. 2014, 2014, 701596. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/701596.

  • 7.

    Marschner, P. Marschner’s Mineral Nutrition of Higher Plants, 3rd ed.; Academic Press: Amsterdam, Netherlands, 2011.

  • 8.

    Wilson, J.R.; Holst, N.; Rees, M. Determinants and patterns of population growth in water hyacinth. Aquat. Bot. 2005, 81, 51–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquabot.2004.11.002.

  • 9.

    Wilson, J.R.; Rees, M.; Holst, N.; et al. Water hyacinth population dynamics. In Proceedings of the Second Meeting of the Global Working Group for the Biological and Integrated Control of Water Hyacinth, Canberra, Australia, 9–12 October 2000; pp. 96–104.

  • 10.

    Olivares, E.; Colonnello, G. Salinity gradient in the Manamo River, a dammed distributary of the Orinoco Delta, and its influence on the presence of Eichhornia crassipes and Paspalum repens. Interciencia 2000, 25. 242–248.

  • 11.

    Rezania, S.; Ponraj, M.; Din, M.F.M.; et al. The diverse applications of water hyacinth with main focus on sustainable energy and production for new era: An overview. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2015, 41, 943–954. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2014.09.006.

  • 12.

    Villamagna, A.M.; Murphy, B.R. Ecological and socio-economic impacts of invasive water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes): A review. Freshw. Biol. 2010, 55, 282–298. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2427.2009.02294.x.

  • 13.

    Lakshminarayana, G.; Rao, K.S.; Pantulu, A.J.; et al. Composition of lipids in roots, stalks, leaves and flowers of Eichhornia crassipes (mart.) solms. Aquat. Bot. 1984, 20, 219–227. https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-3770(84)90088-3.

  • 14.

    Vasu, K.; Goud, J.V.; Suryam, A.; et al. Biomolecular and phytochemical analyses of three aquatic angiosperms. Afr. J. Microbiol. Res. 2009, 3, 418–421. https://doi.org/10.5897/ajmr.9000134.

  • 15.

    Aboul-Enein, A.M.; Al-Abd, A.M.; Shalaby, E.; et al. Eichhornia crassipes (mart) solms from water parasite to potential medicinal remedy. Plant Signal. Behav. 2011, 6, 834–836. https://doi.org/10.4161/psb.6.6.15166.

  • 16.

    Shanab, S.M.M.; Shalaby, E.A. Biological activities and anticorrosion efficiency of water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes). J. Med. Plants Res. 2012, 6, 3950–3962. https://doi.org/10.5897/jmpr12.191.

  • 17.

    Brandi, J.; Wilson-Wilde, L. Standard methods. In Encyclopedia of Forensic Sciences, 2nd ed.; Elsevier Inc.: London, UK; Waltham, MA, USA, 2013; pp. 522–527. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-382165-2.00237-3.

  • 18.

    Kauser, H.; Pal, S.; Haq, I.; et al. Evaluation of rotary drum composting for the management of invasive weed Mikania micrantha Kunth and its toxicity assessment. Bioresour. Technol. 2020, 313, 123678. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2020.123678.

  • 19.

    Saikia, S.; Maturi, K.C.; Prit, H.; et al. Application of municipal solid waste (MSW) char during rotary drum co-composting (RDC) of vegetable waste and its characterization. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2025, 32, 29917–29933. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-024-34332-4.

  • 20.

    Maturi, K.C.; Haq, I.; Kalamdhad, A.S. Biodegradation of an intrusive weed Parthenium hysterophorus through in-vessel composting technique: Toxicity assessment and spectroscopic study. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2022, 29, 84600–84615. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-21816-4.

  • 21.

    Kalamdhad, A.S.; Singh, Y.K.; Ali, M.; et al. Rotary drum composting of vegetable waste and tree leaves. Bioresour. Technol. 2009, 100, 6442–6450. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2009.07.030.

  • 22.

    Mandpe, A.; Yadav, N.; Paliya, S.; et al. Exploring the synergic effect of fly ash and garbage enzymes on biotransformation of organic wastes in in-vessel composting system. Bioresour. Technol. 2021, 322, 124557. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2020.124557.

  • 23.

    Paul, S.; Kauser, H.; Jain, M.S.; et al. Biogenic stabilization and heavy metal immobilization during vermicomposting of vegetable waste with biochar amendment. J. Hazard. Mater. 2020, 390, 121366. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2019.121366.

  • 24.

    Kotowska, U.; Piotrowska, A.; Isidorova, A.G.; et al. Gas chromatographic-mass spectrometric investigation of the chemical composition of the aquatic plant Wolffia arrhiza (Lemnaceae). Oceanol. Hydrobiol. Stud. 2013, 42, 181–187. https://doi.org/10.2478/s13545-013-0072-0.

  • 25.

    Reddy, K.R.; Agami, M.; Tucker, J.C. Influence of nitrogen supply rates on growth and nutrient storage by water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) plants. Aquat. Bot. 1989, 36, 33–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-3770(89)90089-2.

  • 26.

    Zhang, J.; Li, Y.; Liu, C.; et al. Concentration Levels, Biological Enrichment Capacities and Potential Health Risk Assessment of Trace Elements in Eichhornia crassipes from Honghu Lake, China. Sci. Rep. 2019, 9, 2431. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-36511-z.

  • 27.

    Imaoka, T.; Teranishi, S. Rates of nutrient uptake and growth of the water hyacinth [Eichhornia crassipes (mart.) solms]. Water Res. 1988, 22, 943–951. https://doi.org/10.1016/0043-1354(88)90140-6.

  • 28.

    Camargo, J.A.; Alonso, Á. Ecological and toxicological effects of inorganic nitrogen pollution in aquatic ecosystems: A global assessment. Environ. Int. 2006, 32, 831–849. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2006.05.002.

  • 29.

    APHA; AWWA; WEF. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, 21st ed.; Eaton, A.D., Clesceri, L.S., Rice, E.W.; et al., eds.; American Public Health Association: Washington, DC, USA, 2005.

  • 30.

    Metcalf & Eddy; Tchobanoglous, G.; Burton, F.L.; et al. Wastewater Engineering: Treatment and Reuse, 4th ed.; McGraw-Hill: Boston, MA, USA, 2003.

  • 31.

    Xie, J.; Gao, Y.; Xu, X.; et al. Effects of decomposition of submerged aquatic plants on CO2 and CH4 release in river sediment–water environment. Water 2023, 15, 2863. https://doi.org/10.3390/w15162863.

  • 32.

    Gavrilaș, S.; Burescu, F.L.; Chereji, B.D.; et al. The impact of anthropogenic activities on the catchment’s water quality parameters. Water 2025, 17, 1791. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17121791.

  • 33.

    Barko, J.W.; Smart, R.M. Sediment-based nutrition of submersed macrophytes. Aquat. Bot. 1981, 10, 339–352. https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-3770(81)90032-2.

  • 34.

    Gérard, F. Clay minerals, iron/aluminum oxides, and their contribution to phosphate sorption in soils—A myth revisited. Geoderma 2016, 262, 213–226. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2015.08.036.

  • 35.

    Hinsinger, P. Bioavailability of soil inorganic P in the rhizosphere as affected by root-induced chemical changes: A review. Plant Soil 2001, 237, 173–195. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1013351617532.

  • 36.

    Penn, C.J.; Camberato, J.J. A critical review on soil chemical processes that control how soil pH affects phosphorus availability to plants. Agriculture 2019, 9, 120. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture9060120.

  • 37.

    Lytle, C.M.; Lytle, F.W.; Yang, N.; et al. Reduction of Cr(VI) to Cr(III) by wetland plants: Potential for in situ heavy metal detoxification. Environ. Sci. Technol. 1998, 32, 3087–3093. https://doi.org/10.1021/es980089x.

  • 38.

    Marchand, L.; Mench, M.; Jacob, D.L.; et al. Metal and metalloid removal in constructed wetlands, with emphasis on the importance of plants and standardized measurements: A review. Environ. Pollut. 2010, 158, 3447–3461. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2010.08.018.

  • 39.

    Clemens, S. Toxic metal accumulation, responses to exposure and mechanisms of tolerance in plants. Biochimie 2006, 88, 1707–1719. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biochi.2006.07.003.

  • 40.

    Sharma, S.S.; Dietz, K.J. The relationship between metal toxicity and cellular redox imbalance. Trends Plant Sci. 2009, 14, 43–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tplants.2008.10.007.

  • 41.

    Mishra, V.K.; Tripathi, B.D. Concurrent removal and accumulation of heavy metals by the three aquatic macrophytes. Bioresour. Technol. 2008, 99, 7091–7097. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2008.01.002.

  • 42.

    Bhattacharyya, P.; Bhaduri, D.; Adak, T.; et al. Characterization of rice straw from major cultivars for best alternative industrial uses to cutoff the menace of straw burning. Ind. Crops Prod. 2020, 143, 111919. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2019.111919.

  • 43.

    Poletto, M.; Ornaghi Júnior, H.L.; Zattera, A.J. Native cellulose: Structure, characterization and thermal properties. Materials 2014, 7, 6105–6119. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma7096105.

  • 44.

    Biyada, S.; Merzouki, M.; Elkarrach, K.; et al. Spectroscopic characterization of organic matter transformation during composting of textile solid waste using UV–visible spectroscopy, infrared spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction (XRD). Microchem. J. 2020, 159, 105314. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.microc.2020.105314.

  • 45.

    Varma, V.S.; Nashine, S.; Sastri, C.V.; et al. Influence of carbide sludge on microbial diversity and degradation of lignocellulose during in-vessel composting of agricultural waste. Ecol. Eng. 2017, 101, 155–161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2017.01.022.

  • 46.

    El Ouaqoudi, F.Z.; El Fels, L.; Lemée, L.; et al. Evaluation of lignocellulose compost stability and maturity using spectroscopic (FTIR) and thermal (TGA/TDA) analysis. Ecol. Eng. 2015, 75, 217–222. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2014.12.004.

  • 47.

    Qin, R.; Su, C.; Mo, T.; et al. Effect of excess sludge and food waste feeding ratio on the nutrient fractions, and bacterial and fungal community during aerobic co-composting. Bioresour. Technol. 2021, 320, 124339. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2020.124339.

  • 48.

    Zhang, J.; Zhang, T.; Ying, Y.; et al. Effects of different additives on the chemical composition and microbial diversity during composting of Camellia oleifera shell. Bioresour. Technol. 2021, 330, 124990. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2021.124990.

  • 49.

    Singh, N.; Balomajumder, C. Phytoremediation potential of water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) for phenol and cyanide elimination from synthetic/simulated wastewater. Appl. Water Sci. 2021, 11, 144. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-021-01472-8.

  • 50.

    French, A.D. Idealized powder diffraction patterns for cellulose polymorphs. Cellulose 2014, 21, 885–896. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-013-0030-4.

  • 51.

    Ouma, V.O.; Agumba, D.O.; Weramwanja, P.M.; et al. Sustainable valorization of water hyacinth-derived lignocellulose towards functional applications. Cleaner Water 2025, 4, 100139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clwat.2025.100139.

  • 52.

    Bolenz, S.; Omran, H.; Gierschner, K. Treatments of water hyacinth tissue to obtain useful products. Biol. Wastes 1990, 33, 263–274. https://doi.org/10.1016/0269-7483(90)90130-k.

  • 53.

    Gressel, J. Transgenics are imperative for biofuel crops. Plant Sci. 2008, 174, 246–263. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plantsci.2007.11.009.

  • 54.

    Gutiérrez, E.; Huerto, R.; Saldaña, P.; et al. Strategies for waterhyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) control in Mexico. Hydrobiologia 1996, 340, 181–185. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00012752.

  • 55.

    Varma, V.S.; Dhamodharan, K.; Kalamdhad, A.S. Characterization of bacterial community structure during in-vessel composting of agricultural waste by 16S rRNA sequencing. 3 Biotech 2018, 8, 301. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13205-018-1319-7.

  • 56.

    Chuang, Y.S.; Lay, C.H.; Sen, B.; et al. Biohydrogen and biomethane from water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) fermentation: Effects of substrate concentration and incubation temperature. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2011, 36, 14195–14203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2011.04.188.

  • 57.

    Poddar, K.; Mandal, L.H.; Banerjee, G.C. Studies on water hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes chemical composition of the plant and water from different habitats. Indian Vet. J. 1991, 68, 833–837.

  • 58.

    Sannigrahi, A.K.; Chakrabortty, S.; Borah, B.C. Large scale utilization of water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) as raw material for Vermi composting and surface mulching in vegetable cultivation. Ecol. Environ. Conserv. 2002, 8, 269–271.

  • 59.

    Stocker, R.K.; Haller, W.T. Residual effects of herbicide-treated Eichhornia crassipes used as a soil amendment. Hydrobiologia 1999, 415, 329–333. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1003877432409.

  • 60.

    Akçin, G.; Saltabas, Ö.; Afsar, H. Removal of lead by water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes). J. Environ. Sci. Health Part A Environ. Sci. Eng. Toxicol. 1994, 29, 2177–2183. https://doi.org/10.1080/10934529409376172.

  • 61.

    Woomer, P.L.; Muzira, R.; Bwamiki, D.; et al. Biological management of water hyacinth waste in Uganda. Biol. Agric. Hortic. 2000, 17, 181–196. https://doi.org/10.1080/01448765.2000.9754841.

  • 62.

    da Costa, R.H.R.; Bavaresco, A.S.L.; Medri, W.; et al. Tertiary treatment of piggery wastes in water hyacinth ponds. Water Sci. Technol. 2000, 42, 211–214. https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2000.0645.

  • 63.

    de Casabianca, M.L.; Laugier, T.; Posada, F. Petroliferous wastewaters treatment with water hyacinths (raffinerie de provence, France): Experimental statement. Waste Manag. 1995, 15, 651–655. https://doi.org/10.1016/0956-053x(96)00012-8.

  • 64.

    Lu, J.; Fu, Z.; Yin, Z. Performance of a water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) system in the treatment of wastewater from a duck farm and the effects of using water hyacinth as duck feed. J. Environ. Sci. 2008, 20, 513–519. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1001-0742(08)62088-4.

  • 65.

    Sooknah, R.D.; Wilkie, A.C. Nutrient removal by floating aquatic macrophytes cultured in anaerobically digested flushed dairy manure wastewater. Ecol. Eng. 2004, 22, 27–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2004.01.004.

  • 66.

    Sushilkumar. Aquatic weeds problems and management in India. Indian J. Weed Sci. 2011, 43, 118–138.

  • 67.

    Jeffery, S.; Verheijen, F.G.A.; van der Velde, M.; et al. A quantitative review of the effects of biochar application to soils on crop productivity using meta-analysis. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 2011, 144, 175–187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2011.08.015.

  • 68.

    Masto, R.E.; Kumar, S.; Rout, T.K.; et al. Biochar from water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) and its impact on soil biological activity. Catena 2013, 111, 64–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2013.06.025.

  • 69.

    Kim, K.H.; Kim, J.Y.; Cho, T.S.; et al. Influence of pyrolysis temperature on physicochemical properties of biochar obtained from the fast pyrolysis of pitch pine (Pinus rigida). Bioresour. Technol. 2012, 118, 158–162. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2012.04.094.

  • 70.

    Rice-Evans, C.; Miller, N.; Paganga, G. Antioxidant properties of phenolic compounds. Trends Plant Sci. 1997, 2, 152–159. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1360-1385(97)01018-2.

  • 71.

    Silva, R.P.; de Melo, M.M.R.; Silvestre, A.J.D.; et al. Polar and lipophilic extracts characterization of roots, stalks, leaves and flowers of water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), and insights for its future valorization. Ind. Crops Prod. 2015, 76, 1033–1038. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2015.07.055.

Share this article:
Download PDF
Supplementary Materials
Issue
Volume 1, Issue 1
How to Cite
Aditya, S.; Kalamdhad, A. S. Comparative GC-MS Metabolite Profiling and Physicochemical Characterization of Eichhornia crassipes Biomass Fractions across Diverse Aquatic Habitats. Bioresource Circularity & Carbon Neutrality 2026, 1 (1), 2.
RIS
BibTex
Copyright & License
article copyright Image
Copyright (c) 2026 by the authors.
Article Metrics
20
Article Views
0
Citations