Integrative Sustainability Assessment of Advanced Wastewater Treatment Technologies: Environmental Impact, Geochemical Insights, and Techno-Economic Evaluation for Circular Water Management

Veeramalai Gopal; Rajaram Kalaivanan; Subramanian Muthusamy

doi:10.53941/esrs.2026.100008

Highlights

Provides an integrated sustainability assessment of advanced wastewater treatment technologies using life cycle, geochemical, and techno-economic perspectives.
Identifies energy-recovery and water-reuse-oriented systems as the most eco-efficient options with reduced greenhouse gas emissions.
Emphasizes the need for quantitative, circular-economy-based evaluation frameworks to guide climateresilient wastewater management strategies.

Abstract

Rapid advancements in wastewater treatment technologies are essential for achieving sustainability goals related to circular water use, carbon neutrality, and resource efficiency. This review provides an integrative assessment of key advanced treatment systems including membrane filtration, advanced oxidation processes, and anaerobic digestion by examining their environmental performance, geochemical implications, and techno-economic feasibility. Findings from life cycle assessment (LCA), carbon footprint evaluations, and cost–benefit analyses identify technologies with high eco-efficiency and reduced greenhouse gas emissions, particularly those enabling energy recovery and enhanced water reuse. The synthesis demonstrates that combining environmental indicators with geochemical insights supports the development of sustainable treatment pathways. Overall, the review highlights the need for integrated evaluation frameworks that link technological function with environmental and economic outcomes, guiding future wastewater treatment under circularity and climate-resilient frameworks.

References

1.
Pattison, J.E.; Cooke, P. Groundwater: Sinking cities, urbanisation, global drying, population growth. J. Popul. Sustain. 2024, 8, 77–104. https://doi.org/10.3197/JPS.63799977346492
2.
Khan, M. Impact of urbanization on water resources of Pakistan: A review. NUST J. Eng. Sci. 2019, 12, 1–8.
3.
Obaideen, K.; Shehata, N.; Sayed, E.T.; et al. The role of wastewater treatment in achieving sustainable development goals (SDGs) and sustainability guideline. Energy Nexus 2022, 7, 100112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nexus.2022.100112
4.
Silva, J.A. Wastewater treatment and reuse for sustainable water resources management: A systematic literature review. Sustainability 2023, 15, 10940. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151410940
5.
Baloch, M.Y.J.; Zhang, W.; Sultana, T.; et al. Utilization of sewage sludge to manage saline–alkali soil and increase crop production: Is it safe or not? Environ. Technol. Innov. 2023, 32, 103266. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eti.2023.103266
6.
Gao, H.; Scherson, Y.D.;Wells, G.F. Towards energy neutral wastewater treatment: Methodology and state of the art. Environ. Sci. Process. Impacts 2014, 16, 1223–1246.
7.
Guo, Q.; Qi, F.; Mu, R.; et al. Advances in sustainable wastewater treatment: Microalgal–bacterial consortia process, greenhouse gas reduction and energy recovery technologies. Water Environ. J. 2023, 37, 192–205. https://doi.org/10.1111/wej.12839
8.
Chai, J.; Zhang, W.; Zhao, K.; et al. Multi-biological risk in groundwater–surface water system under landfill stress: Driven by bacterial size and biological toxicity. J. Hydrol. 2024, 636, 131282. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2024.131282
9.
Soo, A.; Kim, J.; Shon, H.K. Technologies for the wastewater circular economy–A review Desalin. Water Treat. 2024, 317, 100205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dwt.2024.100205
10.
Cairone, S.; Hasan, S.W.; Choo, K.H.; et al. Revolutionizing wastewater treatment toward circular economy and carbon neutrality goals: Pioneering sustainable and efficient solutions for automation and advanced process control with smart and cuttingedge technologies. J. Water Process Eng. 2024, 63, 105486. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwpe.2024.105486
11.
Jat Baloch, M.Y.; Zhang, W.; Zhang, D.; et al. Evolution mechanism of arsenic enrichment in groundwater and associated health risks in southern Punjab, Pakistan. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 13325. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192013325
12.
Tarpani, R.R.Z.; Azapagic, A. Life cycle sustainability assessment of advanced treatment techniques for urban wastewater reuse and sewage sludge resource recovery. Sci. Total Environ. 2023, 869, 161771. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.161771
13.
Rodriguez-Garcia, G.; Molinos-Senante, M.; Hospido, A.; et al. Environmental and economic profile of six typologies of wastewater treatment plants. Water Res. 2011, 45, 5997–6010. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2011.08.053
14.
Islam, F.S. Advanced wastewater treatment technologies in addressing future water scarcity through resource recovery and reuse. J. Eng. Res. Rep. 2025, 27, 370–398. https://doi.org/10.9734/jerr/2025/v27i51513
15.
Sha, C.; Shen, S.; Zhang, J.; et al. A review of strategies and technologies for sustainable decentralized wastewater treatment. Water 2024, 16, 3003. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16203003
16.
Krystynik, P. Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs)–Utilization of hydroxyl radical and singlet oxygen. In Reactive Oxygen Species; IntechOpen: London, UK, 2021.
17.
Agrawal, S.; Chohadia, A.K.; Sherry, P.; et al. A review on wastewater treatment containing organic pollutants using advance oxidation processes. Int. J. Sci. Res. Sci. Technol. 2023, 10, 50–75. https://doi.org/10.32628/IJSRST2310014
18.
Silva, J.A. Advanced oxidation process in the sustainable treatment of refractory wastewater: A systematic literature review. Sustainability 2025, 17, 3439. https://doi.org/10.3390/su17083439
19.
Pandis, P.K.; Kalogirou, C.; Kanellou, E.; et al. Key points of advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) for wastewater, organic pollutants and pharmaceutical waste treatment: A mini review. Chem. Eng. 2022, 6, 8. https://doi.org/10.3390/chemengineering6010008
20.
Satyam, S.; Patra, S. The evolving landscape of advanced oxidation processes in wastewater treatment: Challenges and recent innovations. Processes 2025, 13, 987. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13040987
21.
Abd El-Ghaffar, M.A.; Tieama, H.A. A review of membranes classifications, configurations, surface modifications, characteristics and its applications in water purification. Chem. Biomol. Eng. 2017, 2, 57–82. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.cbe.20170202.11
22.
Martinez-Huitle, C.A.; Ferro, S. Electrochemical oxidation of organic pollutants for the wastewater treatment: Direct and indirect processes. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2006, 35, 1324–1340. https://doi.org/10.1039/B517632H
23.
Błaszczyk, W.; Siatecka, A.; Tlusto˘s, P.; et al. Occurrence and dissipation mechanisms of organic contaminants during sewage sludge anaerobic digestion: A critical review. Sci. Total Environ. 2024, 945, 173517. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.173517
24.
Loganathan, P.; Kandasamy, J.; Ratnaweera, H.; et al. Treatment trends and hybrid methods for the removal of poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances from water—A review. Appl. Sci. 2024, 14, 2574. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14062574
25.
Alardhi, S.M.; Ali, N.S.; Saady, N.M.C.; et al. Separation techniques in different configurations of hybrid systems via synergetic adsorption and membrane processes for water treatment: A review. J. Ind. Eng. Chem. 2024, 130, 91–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jiec.2023.09.051
26.
Yu, S.; Deng, S.; Zhou, A.; et al. Life cycle assessment of energy consumption and GHG emission for sewage sludge treatment and disposal: A review. Front. Energy Res. 2023, 11, 1123972. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenrg.2023.1123972
27.
Yadav, G.; Mishra, A.; Ghosh, P.; et al. Technical, economic and environmental feasibility of resource recovery technologies from wastewater. Sci. Total Environ. 2021, 796, 149022. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.149022
28.
Nath, S. Electrochemical wastewater treatment technologies through life cycle assessment: A review. ChemBioEng Rev. 2024, 11, e202400016. https://doi.org/10.1002/cben.202400016
29.
Starkl, M.; Brunner, N.; Das, S.; et al. Sustainability assessment for wastewater treatment systems in developing countries. Water 2022, 14, 241. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14020241
30.
Rashid, S.S.; Harun, S.N.; Hanafiah, M.M.; et al. Life cycle assessment and its application in wastewater treatment: A brief overview. Processes 2023, 11, 208. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr11010208
31.
Yilmaz, M.; Guven, H.; Ozgun, H.; et al. The application of life cycle assessment (LCA) to anaerobic technologies for the treatment of municipal wastewater: A review. Process Saf. Environ. Prot. 2024, 182, 357–370. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psep.2023.11.078
32.
Tsangas, M.; Papamichael, I.; Banti, D.; et al. LCA of municipal wastewater treatment. Chemosphere 2023, 341, 139952. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.139952
33.
Rahman, T.U.; Roy, H.; Islam, M.R.; et al. The advancement in membrane bioreactor (MBR) technology toward sustainable industrial wastewater management. Membranes 2023, 13, 181. https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes13020181
34.
Guerra-Rodrıguez, S.; Cuesta, S.; Perez, J.; et al. Life cycle assessment of sulfate radical based-AOPs for wastewater disinfection. Chem. Eng. J. 2023, 474, 145427. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2023.145427
35.
Martinez-Arce, A.; O’Flaherty, V.; Styles, D. State-of-the-art in assessing the environmental performance of anaerobic digestion biorefineries. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. 2024, 207, 107660. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2024.107660
36.
He, X.; Li, Z.; Xing, C.; et al. Carbon footprint of a conventional wastewater treatment plant: An analysis of water–energy nexus from life cycle perspective for emission reduction. J. Clean. Prod. 2023, 429, 139562. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.139562
37.
Nguyen, T.K.L.; Ngo, H.H.; Guo, W.S.; et al. A critical review on life cycle assessment and plant-wide models towards emission control strategies for greenhouse gas from wastewater treatment plants. J. Environ. Manag. 2020, 264, 110440. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.110440
38.
Massara, T.M.; Malamis, S.; Guisasola, A.; et al. A review on nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions during biological nutrient removal from municipal wastewater and sludge reject water. Sci. Total Environ. 2017, 596, 106–123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.03.191
39.
Mofatto, P.M.B.; Cosenza, A.; Di Trapani, D.; et al. Carbon footprint reduction by coupling intermittent aeration with submerged MBR: A pilot plant study. J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 2024, 12, 113115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2024.113115
40.
Evangelisti, S.; Lettieri, P.; Borello, D.; Clift, R. Life cycle assessment of energy from waste via anaerobic digestion: A UK case study. Waste Manag. 2014, 34, 226–237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2013.09.013
41.
Borkovi´c, A.; Dragi´c, D.; Pilipovi´c, S.; et al. Application of solar energy in water treatment. In Proceedings of the First International Conference FUTURE-BME 2024 (Forging the Future: Pioneering Approaches in Business, Management and Economics Engineering to Overcome Emerging Global Challenges), Novi Sad, Serbia, 30–31 October 2024; p. 61.
42.
Lima, D.; Li, L.; Appleby, G. A review of renewable energy technologies in municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). Energies 2024, 17, 6084. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17236084
43.
Wu, Z.; Duan, H.; Li, K.; Ye, L. A comprehensive carbon footprint analysis of different wastewater treatment plant configurations. Environ. Res. 2022, 214, 113818. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2022.113818
44.
Hvala, N.; Vre˘cko, D.; Cerar, P.; et al. Energy cost optimisation in a wastewater treatment plant by balancing on-site electricity generation with plant demand. Water 2025, 17, 1170. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17081170
45.
Buller, L.S.; Sganzerla, W.G.; Berni, M.D.; et al. Design and technoeconomic analysis of a hybrid system for energy supply in a wastewater treatment plant: A decentralized energy strategy. J. Environ. Manag. 2022, 305, 114389. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.114389
46.
Maktabifard, M.; Zaborowska, E.; Makinia, J. Achieving energy neutrality in wastewater treatment plants through energy savings and enhancing renewable energy production. Rev. Environ. Sci. Biotechnol. 2018, 17, 655–689. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11157-018-9478-x
47.
Legg, S. IPCC, 2021: Climate change 2021—The physical science basis. Interaction 2021, 49, 44–45. https://search.informit.org/doi/10.3316/informit.315096509383738
48.
S´anchez-Montes, I.; Santos, G.O.; Dos Santos, A.J.; et al. Toxicological aspect of water treated by chlorine-based advanced oxidation processes: A review. Sci. Total Environ. 2023, 878, 163047. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.163047
49.
Wu, T. Byproduct formation in heterogeneous catalytic ozonation processes. Environ. Sci. Adv. 2023, 2, 558–569. https://doi.org/10.1039/D2VA00216G
50.
Abdelrahman, A.M.; Ozgun, H.; Dereli, R.K.; et al. Anaerobic membrane bioreactors for sludge digestion: Current status and future perspectives. Crit. Rev. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2021, 51, 2119–2157. https://doi.org/10.1080/10643389.2020.1780879
51.
Viotti, P.; Tatti, F.; Bongirolami, S.; et al. Life cycle assessment methodology applied to a wastewater treatment plant. Water 2024, 16, 1177. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16081177
52.
Saadatinavaz, F.; Alomari, M.A.; Ali, M.; Saikaly, P.E. Striking a balance: Decentralized and centralized wastewater treatment systems for advancing sustainable development goal 6. Adv. Energy Sustain. Res. 2024, 5, 2400097. https://doi.org/10.1002/aesr.202400097
53.
Ahmad, K. Feasibility of adsorption as a process for large-scale adoption across industries for wastewater treatment: Research gaps and economic assessment. J. Clean. Prod. 2023, 388, 136014. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.136014
54.
Ni, L.; Wang, P.; Westerhoff, P.; et al. Mechanisms and strategies of advanced oxidation processes for membrane fouling control in MBRs: Membrane–foulant removal versus mixed-liquor improvement. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2024, 58, 11213–11235. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.4c02659
55.
Ryu, T.Y.; Won, J.; Jung, H.; Im, H. A critical review on advanced membrane bioreactors for wastewater treatment: Fouling reduction and energy demand. J. Korean Soc. Environ. Eng. 2024, 46, 629–647. https://doi.org/10.4491/KSEE.2024.46.10.629
56.
Akrami, E.; Khalilarya, S.; Rocco, M.V. Techno-economic evaluation of a novel bio-energy system integrated with carbon capture and utilization technology in greenhouses. J. Taiwan Inst. Chem. Eng. 2023, 148, 104729. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtice.2023.104729
57.
Lessmann, M.; Kanellopoulos, A.; Kros, J.; et al. Maximizing agricultural reuse of recycled nutrients: A spatially explicit assessment of environmental consequences and costs. J. Environ. Manag. 2023, 332, 117378. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.117378
58.
Smol, M. Circular economy in wastewater treatment plant—Water, energy and raw materials recovery. Energies 2023, 16, 3911. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16093911
59.
Ghimire, U.; Sarpong, G.; Gude, V.G. Transitioning wastewater treatment plants toward circular economy and energy sustainability. ACS Omega 2021, 6, 11794–11803. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.0c05827
60.
United Nations (UN). Transforming Our World: The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development; Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 25 September 2015; UN: New York, NY, USA, 2015; pp. 1–13. https://wedocs.unep.org/handle/20.500.11822/9824
61.
Capodaglio, A.G.; Callegari, A. Energy and resources recovery from excess sewage sludge: A holistic analysis of opportunities and strategies. Resour. Conserv. Recycl. Adv. 2023, 19, 200184. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rcradv.2023.200184
62.
Michael, I.; Rizzo, L.; McArdell, C.S.; et al. Urban wastewater treatment plants as hotspots for the release of antibiotics in the environment: A review. Water Res. 2013, 47, 957–995. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2012.11.027
63.
Carroll, P.; Kellow, A. The OECD: A Decade of Transformation: 2011–2021; Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. KG: Berlin, Germany, 2021.
64.
Rodriguez-Morales, A.J.; Cardona-Ospina, J.A.; Guti´errez-Ocampo, E.; et al. Clinical, laboratory and imaging features of COVID-19: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Travel Med. Infect. Dis. 2020, 34, 101623. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tmaid.2020.101623
65.
Yuan, X.; He, P.; Zhu, Q.; et al. Adversarial examples: Attacks and defenses for deep learning. IEEE Trans. Neural Netw. Learn. Syst. 2019, 30, 2805–2824. https://doi.org/10.1109/TNNLS.2018.2886017
66.
Barreto, M.; Victor, C.; Hammond, C.; et al. Loneliness around the world: Age, gender, and cultural differences in loneliness. Pers. Individ. Differ. 2021, 169, 110066. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110066
67.
Guest, J.S.; Skerlos, S.J.; Barnard, J.L.; et al. A new planning and design paradigm to achieve sustainable resource recovery from wastewater. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2009, 43, 6126–6130. https://doi.org/10.1021/es9010515
68.
Banti, D.C.; Tsangas, M.; Samaras, P.; et al. LCA of a membrane bioreactor compared to activated sludge system for municipal wastewater treatment. Membranes 2020, 10, 421. https://doi.org/10.3390/membranes10120421
69.
Tortajada, C.; Nambiar, S. Communications on technological innovations: Potable water reuse. Water 2019, 11, 251. https://doi.org/10.3390/w11020251
70.
Murhekar, M.V.; Bhatnagar, T.; Thangaraj, J.W.V.; et al. SARS-CoV-2 seroprevalence among the general population and healthcare workers in India, December 2020–January 2021. Int. J. Infect. Dis. 2021, 108, 145–155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijid.2021.05.040
71.
Liu, H.-Y.; Jay, M.; Chen, X. The role of nature-based solutions for improving environmental quality, health and well-being. Sustainability 2021, 13, 10950. https://doi.org/10.3390/su131910950
72.
Corominas, L.; Foley, J.; Guest, J.S.; et al. Life cycle assessment applied to wastewater treatment: State of the art. Water Res. 2013, 47, 5480–5492. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2013.06.049
73.
Wutich, A.; Thomson, P.; Jepson, W.; et al. MAD water: Integrating modular, adaptive, and decentralized approaches for water security in the climate change era. WIREs Water 2023, 10, e1680. https://doi.org/10.1002/wat2.1680

Scilight Press

Author Information

Highlights

Abstract

Graphical Abstract

Keywords

References

About Scilight

Journals

Publishing Policies

Contact Us