Climate, Toxic Exposures and Work: Linking the Amazon, Africa, and Southern Europe through a COP30 Dialogue

Roberto G. Lucchini; Sila Apurina; Alexandra Almeida; Silvana Andreescu; Paulo Cesar Basta; Maria Elena Crespo Lopez; Gabriela de Paula Fonseca Arrifano; Alok Deoraj; Enatfenta Sewmehone Endalew; Carlos Espinal; Quentin Felty; Luis Fernandez; Maria Del Carmen Gastañaga; Luca Lombroso; Stefanny Magaly Moncada Barbosa; Ebba Malqvist; Desalew Meseret Moges; Cristina O’Callaghan-Gordo; Jesús Olivero-Verbel; Luciana Pitta; Claudia Vega; Kunihiko Yoshida; Luiz Augusto Galvão; Kurt Straif

doi:10.53941/wah.2026.100017

Abstract

Climate change, toxic pollution, and social inequities are converging to create new risks for workers and communities, particularly in the Global South. Yet occupational and environmental health research and policy still tend to address these stressors in isolation, not considering their interactions. To synthesize the main messages of the COP30 side event, “Amazon and Heat: Community-First Climate–Environment–Health Action from the Amazon Basin to Africa and Europe”, presented in the context of the LIMA2025 Conference on Occupational Medicine, and to propose a framework for integrated climate–environment–health action in work and community settings. This conference report and policy perspective are based on a narrative synthesis of presentations and discussions delivered during the COP30 side event and subsequently presented at LIMA2025 by researchers, Indigenous leaders, occupational health practitioners and civil society organizations from the Amazon Basin, Africa and Europe. Contributions were grouped into thematic domains: (1) climate and toxic exposures in the Amazon; (2) work and heat in African and Southern European settings; and (3) cross-cutting challenges and policy opportunities. The analysis followed a qualitative thematic approach. Across regions, participants described intersecting exposures to heat, toxic chemicals, air pollution, deforestation and psychosocial stress, disproportionately affecting workers, Indigenous peoples, traditional populations, pregnant women and children. Evidence from cohort studies, intervention projects, and remote-sensing analyses highlighted: (i) elevated mercury exposure and increasing microplastics and diesel contamination in Amazonian communities, alongside climate-sensitive food-system vulnerabilities; (ii) growing heat-related health risks among children and pregnant women in African cities; and (iii) dehydration, kidney dysfunction, and cardiometabolic risks among agricultural and construction workers in Southern Europe. Cross-cutting themes included exposure mixtures, inequities in access to care and justice, persistent data gaps, and the need for locally owned technologies, capacity building, and sustainable solutions. The side event catalyzed the development of an Amazon Climate–Environment–Health Consortium and a shared policy agenda. Integrated, equity-focused action on heat, toxic exposures, and work is essential for a just climate transition.

References

1.
Ioannou, L.G.; Foster, J.; Morris, N.B.; et al. Occupational heat strain in outdoor workers: A comprehensive review and meta-analysis. Temperature 2022, 9, 67–102. https://doi.org/10.1080/23328940.2022.2030634.
2.
Myhre, S.; Frønsdal, K.; Ames, H.; et al. Building and Strengthening Climate-Resilient Health Systems in Low- and Middle-Income Country Contexts; Norwegian Institute of Public Health: Oslo, Norway, 2024.
3.
Gray, W.B.; Shadbegian, R. Economics of environmental compliance and enforcement. In Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Environmental Science; Oxford University Press: Oxford, UK, 2021.
4.
Flores, B.M.; Montoya, E.; Sakschewski, B.; et al. Critical transitions in the Amazon forest system. Nature 2024, 626, 555–564. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-023-06970-0.
5.
Artaxo, P.; Hansson, H.C.; Machado, L.A.T.; et al. Amazon deforestation implications for local and regional climate: A review. Theor. Appl. Climatol. 2023, 153, 317–333.
6.
Hacón, S.; Rivera, G.A.; Rodrigues, Y.E.; et al. Health in the Amazon: Environmental, Social and Climate Determinants; Science Panel for the Amazon: New York, NY, USA, 2024.
7.
Bebbington, A.J.; Verdum, R.; Gamboa, C.; et al. Resource extraction and infrastructure threaten forest cover and community rights. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2018, 115, 13164–13173. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1812505115.
8.
Lucchini, R.G.; Basta, P.C.; Crespo-Lopez, M.E.; et al. Mercury Contamination and Co-exposures in the Amazon Basin: At the Center of the Planetary Environmental Crisis. Ann. Glob. Health 2025, 91, 42. https://doi.org/10.5334/aogh.4817.
9.
Moulatlet, G.M.; Yacelga, N.; Rico, A.; et al. A systematic review on metal contamination due to mining activities in the Amazon basin and associated environmental hazards. Chemosphere 2023, 339, 139700. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.139700.
10.
Damiani, S.; do Nascimento, R.F.; de Souza, C.M.M.; et al. Water and sediment pesticide contamination on Indigenous lands in the Brazilian Amazon. Heliyon 2023, 9, e21445. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e21445.
11.
Morais, L.M.S.; Queiroz, A.; Brito, B.K.F.; et al. Microplastics in the Amazon biome: State of the art and future priorities. Heliyon 2024, 10, e28851. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e28851.
12.
Cissé, G.; McLeman, R.; Adams, H.; et al. Health, Wellbeing and the Changing Structure of Communities. In Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability; Chapter 7; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK; New York, NY, USA, 2022.
13.
Li, X.; Stringer, L.C.; Dallimer, M.; et al. The role of blue-green infrastructure in the urban thermal environment across African cities. Sustain. Cities Soc. 2022, 80, 103780. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2022.103780.
14.
Habibi, P.; Moradi, G.; Dehghan, A.; et al. The impacts of climate change on occupational heat strain in outdoor workers: A systematic review. Urban Clim. 2021, 39, 100928.
15.
Climate-ADAPT. Effects on Occupational Health and Safety; Climate-ADAPT: Copenhagen, Denmark, 2023.
16.
Gibb, K.; Beckman, S.; Vergara, X.P.; et al. Extreme heat and occupational health risks. Annu. Rev. Public Health 2024, 45, 59–78.
17.
Nerbass, F.B.; Pecoits-Filho, R.; Clark, W.F.; et al. Occupational heat stress and kidney health: From farms to factories. Kidney Int. Rep. 2017, 2, 998–1008. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ekir.2017.08.012.
18.
Roca, J.; Sanromà-Ortiz, M.; Cemeli, T.; et al. Health interventions for the prevention of dehydration in agricultural workers exposed to heat stress: A systematic review. Healthcare 2025, 13, 1137.
19.
Basta, P.C.; Viana, P.V.S.; Vasconcellos, A.C.S.; et al. Mercury Exposure in Munduruku Indigenous Communities from Brazilian Amazon: Methodological Background and an Overview of the Principal Results. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 9222. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18179222.
20.
de Vasconcellos, A.C.S.; Hallwass, G.; Bezerra, J.G.; et al. Health Risk Assessment of Mercury Exposure from Fish Consumption in Munduruku Indigenous Communities in the Brazilian Amazon. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 7940.
21.
Lopes-Araújo, A.; Arrifano, G.P.; Macchi, B.M.; et al. Hair mercury is associated with dyslipidemia and cardiovascular risk: An anthropometric, biochemical and genetic cross-sectional study of Amazonian vulnerable populations. Environ. Res. 2023, 229, 115971. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2023.115971.
22.
Santos-Sacramento, L.; Arrifano, G.P.; Lopes-Araújo, A.; et al. Human neurotoxicity of mercury in the Amazon: A scoping review with insights and critical considerations. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 2021, 208, 111686. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2020.111686.
23.
Crespo-Lopez, M.E.; Augusto-Oliveira, M.; Lopes-Araújo, A.; et al. Mercury: What can we learn from the Amazon? Environ. Int. 2021, 146, 106223. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2020.106223.
24.
Takeuchi, H.; Shiota, Y.; Yaoi, K.; et al. Mercury levels in hair are associated with reduced neurobehavioral performance and altered brain structures in young adults. Commun. Biol. 2022, 5, 529. https://doi.org/10.1038/s42003-022-03464-z.
25.
Klus, J.K.; Thurston, S.W.; Myers, G.J.; et al. Postnatal methylmercury exposure and neurodevelopmental outcomes at 7 years of age in the Seychelles Child Development Study Nutrition Cohort 2. Neurotoxicology 2023, 99, 115–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuro.2023.10.004.
26.
Weihe, P.; Joensen, H.D. Dietary recommendations regarding pilot whale meat and blubber in the Faroe Islands. Int. J. Circumpolar Health 2012, 71, 18594. https://doi.org/10.3402/ijch.v71i0.18594.
27.
Cegolon, L.; Petranich, E.; Pavoni, E.; et al. Concentration of mercury in human hair and associated factors in residents of the Gulf of Trieste (North-Eastern Italy). Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. Int. 2023, 30, 21425–21437. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-23384-z.
28.
Basta, P.C.; de Vasconcellos, A.C.S.; Hallwass, G.; et al. Risk Assessment of Mercury-Contaminated Fish Consumption in the Brazilian Amazon: An Ecological Study. Toxics 2023, 11, 800. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics11090800.
29.
Swenson, J.J.; Carter, C.E.; Domec, J.C.; et al. Gold mining in the Peruvian Amazon: Global prices, deforestation, and mercury imports. PLoS ONE 2011, 6, e18875. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0018875.
30.
Szponar, N.; Vega, C.M.; Gerson, J.; et al. Tracing Atmospheric Mercury from Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2025, 59, 5021–5033. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.4c10521.
31.
Rodriguez-Pascual, M.J.; Vega, C.; Andrade, N.; et al. Effects of mercury exposure in three Amazonian agricultural plant species and the impact on bacterial population in soil. Environ. Res. 2025, 285, 122469. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2025.122469.
32.
FDA. Mercury Levels in Commercial Fish and Shellfish (1990–2012); U.S. Food and Drug Administration: Silver Spring, MD, USA, 2022.
33.
FDA; EPA. Questions and Answers from the FDA/EPA Advice about Eating Fish for Those Who Might Become or Are Pregnant or Breastfeeding and Children Ages 1 to 11 Years; U.S. Food and Drug Administration: Silver Spring, MD, USA; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: Washington, DC, USA, 2022.
34.
Vega, C.M.; Orellana, J.D.Y.; Oliveira, M.W.; et al. Human Mercury Exposure in Yanomami Indigenous Villages from the Brazilian Amazon. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2018, 15, 1051. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15061051.
35.
da Conceição Nascimento Pinheiro, M.; Cardoso, F.C.; do Nascimento de Aviz, L.B.; et al. Mercury Exposure and Health Effects in Indigenous People from the Brazilian Amazon-Literature-Scoping Review. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2025, 22, 1159. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph22081159.
36.
Rebouças, B.H.; Kubota, G.T.; Oliveira, R.A.A.; et al. Long-Term Environmental Methylmercury Exposure Is Associated with Peripheral Neuropathy and Cognitive Impairment among an Amazon Indigenous Population. Toxics 2024, 12, 212. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12030212.
37.
Jacques, A.D.; Furutani de Oliveira, M.A.; da Silva, M.C.; et al. Clinical, Laboratory and Neurodevelopmental Findings in Children from the Yanomami-Ninam Population Chronically Exposed to Methylmercury. Toxics 2024, 12, 193. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12030193.
38.
Silman, A.K.; Chhabria, R.; Hafzalla, G.W.; et al. Impairment in Working Memory and Executive Function Associated with Mercury Exposure in Indigenous Populations in Upper Amazonian Peru. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 10989. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191710989.
39.
Weihe, P.; Grandjean, P.; Jørgensen, P.J. Application of hair-mercury analysis to determine the impact of a seafood advisory. Environ. Res. 2005, 97, 200–207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2004.01.006.
40.
National Research Council (US) Committee on the Toxicological Effects of Methylmercury. Toxicological Effects of Methylmercury; National Academies Press (US): Washington, DC, USA, 2000.
41.
FAO; WHO. Evaluation of Certain Food Additives and Contaminants: Sixty-First Report of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives; FAO: Rome, Italy; WHO: Geneva, Switzerland, 2003
42.
Wei, Q.; Nagi, R.; Sadeghi, K.; et al. Detection and Spatial Mapping of Mercury Contamination in Water Samples Using a Smart-Phone Based Sensor. ACS Nano 2014, 8, 1121–1129. https://doi.org/10.1021/nn406571t.
43.
Ateia, M.; Wei, H.; Andreescu, S. Sensors for Emerging Water Contaminants: Overcoming Roadblocks to Innovation. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2024, 58, 2636–2651. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.3c09889.
44.
Sarwar, M.; Leichner, J.; Naja, G.M.; et al. Smart-phone, paper-based fluorescent sensor for ultra-low inorganic phosphate detection in environmental samples. Microsyst. Nanoeng. 2019, 5, 56. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41378-019-0096-8.
45.
Espinoza, J.C.; Jimenez, J.C.; Marengo, J.A.; et al. The new record of drought and warmth in the Amazon in 2023 related to regional and global climatic features. Sci. Rep. 2024, 14, 11203. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-58782-5.
46.
Costanzini, S.; Boccolari, M.; Vega Parra, S.; et al. A comparative analysis of temperature trends at Modena Geophysical Observatory and Mount Cimone Observatory, Italy. Int. J. Climatol. 2024, 44, 4741–4766. https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.8607.
47.
Instituto Amazônico do Mercúrio (IAMER). Available online: https://www.instagram.com/iamer.amazon/ (accessed on 1 July 2026).
48.
Sustainable Energy for All. Chilling Prospects 2023: Access to Cooling Gaps and Opportunities; Sustainable Energy for All: Vienna, Austria, 2023.
49.
Augusto-Oliveira, M.; Arrifano, G.; Leal-Nazaré, C.; et al. Human methylmercury exposure/intoxication in the Global South: Insights for prevention/mitigation in the Amazonian context. Sci. Total Environ. 2025, 1001, 180537. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2025.180537.
50.
Fona, C.M.T.; Miranda, A.M.M.; Jesus, M.I.; et al. Biomarkers of Pesticide Exposure in a Traditional Brazilian Amazon Community. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2024, 21, 1396. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph21111396.
51.
Kourtchev, I.; Sebben, B.G.; Brill, S.; et al. Occurrence of a “forever chemical” in the atmosphere above pristine Amazon Forest. Sci. Total Environ. 2024, 944, 173918. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.173918.
52.
Urrutia-Pereira, M.; Rizzardi, K.; Mello-da-Silva, C.A.; et al. Impact of exposure to smoke from biomass burning in the Amazon rainforest on human health: A systematic review. J. Bras. Pneumol. 2021, 47, e20210207. https://doi.org/10.36416/1806-3756/e20210207.
53.
Fernández-Llamazares, Á.; Garteizgogeascoa, M.; Basu, N.; et al. A state-of-the-art review of Indigenous Peoples and environmental pollution. Integr. Environ. Assess. Manag. 2020, 16, 324–341. https://doi.org/10.1002/ieam.4239.
54.
Butt, E.W.; Conibear, L.; Knote, C.; et al. Large air quality and public health impacts due to Amazonian deforestation fires in South America. GeoHealth 2021, 5, e2021GH000429. https://doi.org/10.1029/2021GH000429.
55.
Hofer, C.B.; Périssé, A.R.S.; Vasconcellos, A.C.S.; et al. Munduruku Indigenous children: health situational in an area with high mercury exposure. Rev. Saude Publica 2025, 59, e19.
56.
Basu, N.; Horvat, M.; Zastenskaya, I.; et al. J. Our evolved understanding of the human health risks of mercury. Ambio 2023, 52, 877–896. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-023-01831-6.
57.
Olivero-Verbel, J.; Alvarez-Ortega, N.; Alcala-Orozco, M.; et al. Population exposure to lead and mercury in Latin America. Curr. Opin. Toxicol. 2021, 27, 27–37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cotox.2021.06.002.
58.
Inter-American Commission on Human Rights. Situation of Human Rights of the Indigenous and Tribal Peoples of the Pan-Amazon Region; Inter-American Commission on Human Rights: Washington, DC, USA, 2019.
59.
Inter-American Commission on Human Rights. Indigenous and Tribal Peoples’ Rights over Their Ancestral Lands and Natural Resources; Inter-American Commission on Human Rights: Washington, DC, USA, 2009.
60.
Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. Access to Remedy in Cases of Business-Related Human Rights Abuse: An Interpretive Guide; Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights: Geneva, Switzerland, 2024.
61.
Vieira, A.; Moret, A. Caminhões a Diesel na Amazônia: Análise Dos Impactos e Alternativas Sustentávei. Available online: https://redegta.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/12/Caminhoes-a-Diesel-na-Amazonia_Rede-GTA-.pdf (accessed on 1 July 2026).
62.
CHI². Child Heat Impacts & Climate Health Interventions. Available online: https://chi2.ukzn.ac.za/ (accessed on 1 July 2026).
63.
Moges, D.M.; Mattisson, K.; Malmqvist, E.; et al. Remote sensing of urban heat dynamics and the cooling effect of urban green spaces in Ethiopian cities. Environ. Chall. 2026, 23, 101462. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envc.2026.101462.
64.
ENABLE. Enabling Environments for NCD Risk Reduction in Ethiopia. Available online: https://www.gacd.org/research/projects/hc11 (accessed on 1 July 2026).
65.
Koch, S.; Buekers, J.; Espinosa, A.; et al. Association between objectively assessed physical activity and kidney function among female agricultural workers in hot environments in Spain. Environ. Res. 2025, 276, 121420. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2025.121420.
66.
INTERCAMBIO. Construction Workers. INTERCAMBIO EU Project. Available online: https://intercambio-project.eu/construction-workers/ (accessed on 1 July 2026).
67.
Gondhiya, N.; Rehman, A.U.; Andreescu, D.; et al. Portable electrochemical sensors for per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances: Design, challenges, and opportunities for field deployment. Curr. Opin. Electrochem. 2025, 53, 101725. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coelec.2025.101725.
68.
Hassan, M.H.; Khan, R.; Andreescu, S. Advances in electrochemical detection methods for measuring contaminants of emerging concerns. Electrochem. Sci. Adv. 2022, 2, e2100184. https://doi.org/10.1002/elsa.202100184.

Scilight Press

Author Information

Abstract

Graphical Abstract

Keywords

References

About Scilight

Journals

Publishing Policies

Contact Us