MXenes in Photocatalysis: Emerging 2D Nanomaterials as Co-Catalysts, Heterojunction Engineering and Photothermal Enhancement

Gustavo Henrique Correia dos Santos; Hermenegildo García; Ana Primo

doi:10.53941/photocatalysis.2026.100005

Abstract

MXenes are emerging 2D nanomaterials with unique electronic, thermal, plasmonic and surface properties that make them promising components in advanced photocatalytic systems. Their high electron mobility and tunable surface chemistry enables efficient charge transport and the formation of heterojunctions with semiconductors, improving charge separation and photocatalytic performance. MXenes were initially used in photocatalysis as cocatalysts replacing noble metals in hydrogen evolution, but their high charge mobility and strong photothermal conversion opens promising opportunities for these materials form heterojunctions and in photothermal catalysis. Despite challenges related to oxidative stability, compositional and surface engineering strategies may expand their applicability. Overall, MXenes represent a versatile platform for photocatalysis and photothermal catalysis, with potential contributions to solar-driven chemical processes at large scale.

References

1.
Fresno, F.; Portela, R.; Suárez, S.; et al. Photocatalytic materials: Recent achievements and near future trends. J. Mater. Chem. A 2014, 2, 2863–2884.
2.
Cao, S.; Low, J.; Yu, J.; et al. Polymeric photocatalysts based on graphitic carbon nitride. Adv. Mater. 2015, 27, 2150–2176.
3.
Naguib, M.; Kurtoglu, M.; Presser, V.; et al. Two-dimensional nanocrystals: Two-dimensional nanocrystals produced by exfoliation of Ti₃AlC₂ (Adv. Mater. 37/2011). Adv. Mater. 2011, 23, 4207.
4.
Li, X.; Huang, Z.; Shuck, C.E.; et al. MXene chemistry, electrochemistry and energy storage applications. Nat. Rev. Chem. 2022, 6, 389–404.
5.
Mozafari, M.; Soroush, M. Surface functionalization of MXenes. Mater. Adv. 2021, 2, 7277–7307.
6.
Liu, Y.; Wu, Y.; Wang, X. Thermal transports in the MXenes family: Opportunities and challenges. Nano Res. 2024, 17, 7700–7716.
7.
Hantanasirisakul, K.; Gogotsi, Y. Electronic and optical properties of 2D transition metal carbides and nitrides (MXenes). In Mxenes; Jenny Stanford Publishing: New York, NY, USA, 2023; pp. 135–205.
8.
Pang, J.; Mendes, R.G.; Bachmatiuk, A.; et al. Applications of 2D MXenes in energy conversion and storage systems. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2019, 48, 72–133.
9.
Murali, G.; Reddy Modigunta, J.K.; Park, Y.H.; et al. A review on MXene synthesis, stability, and photocatalytic applications. ACS Nano 2022, 16, 13370–13429.
10.
Li, Y.; Chen, X.; Sun, Y.; et al. Chlorosome-Like Molecular Aggregation of Chlorophyll Derivative on Ti₃C₂T_x MXene Nanosheets for Efficient Noble Metal-Free Photocatalytic Hydrogen Evolution. Adv. Mater. Interfaces 2020, 7, 1902080.
11.
Naguib, M.; Barsoum, M.W.; Gogotsi, Y. Ten years of progress in the synthesis and development of MXenes. Adv. Mater. 2021, 33, 2103393.
12.
Sokol, M.; Natu, V.; Kota, S.; et al. On the chemical diversity of the MAX phases. Trends Chem. 2019, 1, 210–223.
13.
Sun, M.; Chu, S.; Sun, Z.; et al. A review of etching methods and applications of two-dimensional MXenes. Nanotechnology 2024, 35, 382003.
14.
Kruger, D.D.; García, H.; Primo, A. Molten salt derived MXenes: Synthesis and applications. Adv. Sci. 2024, 11, 2307106.
15.
Yusupov, K.; Björk, J.; Rosen, J. A systematic study of work function and electronic properties of MXenes from first principles. Nanoscale Adv. 2023, 5, 3976–3984.
16.
Balcı, E.; Akkuş, Ü.Ö.; Berber, S. Band gap modification in doped MXene: Sc₂CF₂. J. Mater. Chem. C 2017, 5, 5956–5961.
17.
Guo, X.; Li, N.; Wu, C.; et al. Studying plasmon dispersion of MXene for enhanced electromagnetic absorption. Adv. Mater. 2022, 34, 2201120.
18.
Mateo, D.; Cerrillo, J.L.; Durini, S.; et al. Fundamentals and applications of photo-thermal catalysis. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2021, 50, 2173–2210.
19.
Song, C.; Wang, Z.; Yin, Z.; et al. Principles and applications of photothermal catalysis. Chem Catal. 2022, 2, 52–83.
20.
Zaheer, A.; D’Aponte, T.; Babar, Z.U.; et al. One-Step Synthesis of Robust 2D Ti₃C₂-MXene/AuNPs Nanocomposite by Electrostatic Self-Assembly for (Bio)Sensing. Eng. Proc. 2023, 56, 227. https://doi.org/10.3390/ASEC2023-15227.
21.
Gomes Silva, C.; Juárez, R.; Marino, T.; et al. Influence of excitation wavelength (UV or visible light) on the photocatalytic activity of titania containing gold nanoparticles for the generation of hydrogen or oxygen from water. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2011, 133, 595–602.
22.
Wang, H.; Zhang, L.; Chen, Z.; et al. Semiconductor heterojunction photocatalysts: Design, construction, and photocatalytic performances. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2014, 43, 5234–5244.
23.
Gouveia, J.D.; Gomes, J.R.B. Structural and energetic properties of vacancy defects in MXene surfaces. Phys. Rev. Mater. 2022, 6, 024004.
24.
Kumar, S.; Kumari, N.; Singh, T.; et al. Shielding 2D MXenes against oxidative degradation: Recent advances, factors and preventive measures. J. Mater. Chem. C 2024, 12, 8243–8281.
25.
Khalid, Z.; Hadi, F.; Xie, J.; et al. The future of MXenes: Exploring oxidative degradation pathways and coping with surface/edge passivation approach. Small 2025, 21, 2407856.
26.
Stratulat, A.-M.; Nesterova, V.; Korostelev, V.; et al. Defect-Driven Degradation of MXenes in Aqueous Environments and Mitigation Strategies: Insights from First-Principles. ACS Nano 2025, 19, 36994–37003.
27.
Ahmed, M.A.; Mahmoud, S.A.; Mohamed, A.A. Insights into MXene-based materials for environmental applications: Performance, mechanisms, and future directions. FlatChem 2025, 50, 100825.
28.
Xiu, L.; Wang, Z.; Yu, M.; et al. Aggregation-resistant 3D MXene-based architecture as efficient bifunctional electrocatalyst for overall water splitting. ACS Nano 2018, 12, 8017–8028.
29.
Wang, K.; Hussain, I.; Singh, K.; et al. Fabrication of MXene films through various techniques: A mini review. Nanoscale 2025, 17, 15676–15689.
30.
Sun, Y.; Sun, Y.; Meng, X.; et al. Eosin Y-sensitized partially oxidized Ti₃C₂ MXene for photocatalytic hydrogen evolution. Catal. Sci. Technol. 2019, 9, 310–315. https://doi.org/10.1039/C8CY02240B.
31.
Alotabi, A.S.; Adnan, R.H.; Almutairi, A.M.; et al. A Comprehensive Review of the Role of Overlayers in Photocatalytic Overall Water Splitting and Related Reactions. Chem. Rev. 2026, 126, 2801–2845.
32.
Grau, R.R.; Lewandowska-Andralojc, A.; Primo, A.; et al. Enhancement of the photocatalytic hydrogen production with the exfoliation degree of Nb₂C cocatalyst. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2023, 48, 20314–20323.
33.
Smirnova, M.; Scheibe, B.; Ramírez-Grau, R.; et al. Synergistic effects of MXene support and cobalt salts in dye-sensitized photocatalytic hydrogen generation. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2024, 88, 1098–1107.
34.
Wilkinson, F.; Helman, W.P.; Ross, A.B. Quantum yields for the photosensitized formation of the lowest electronically excited singlet state of molecular oxygen in solution. J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data 1993, 22, 113–262.
35.
Baptista, M.S.; Cadet, J.; Greer, A.; et al. Photosensitization reactions of biomolecules: Definition, targets and mechanisms. Photochem. Photobiol. 2021, 97, 1456–1483.
36.
Bai, X.; Guan, J. MXenes for electrocatalysis applications: Modification and hybridization. Chin. J. Catal. 2022, 43, 2057–2090.
37.
Zhang, Y.; Ma, D.; Li, J.; et al. Confinement effects in photocatalysis: Progress and challenges. J. Mater. Chem. A 2025, 13, 10431–10450.
38.
Deng, H.; Hui, Y.; Zhang, C.; et al. MXene−derived quantum dots based photocatalysts: Synthesis, application, prospects, and challenges. Chin. Chem. Lett. 2024, 35, 109078.
39.
Sharbirin, A.S.; Akhtar, S.; Kim, J. Light-emitting MXene quantum dots. Opto-Electron. Adv. 2021, 4, 200077.
40.
Semaltianos, N.G. Nanoparticles by laser ablation. Crit. Rev. Solid State Mater. Sci. 2010, 35, 105–124.
41.
Ramírez, R.; Melillo, A.; Osella, S.; et al. Green, HF-free synthesis of MXene quantum dots and their photocatalytic activity for hydrogen evolution. Small Methods 2023, 7, 2300063.
42.
Ramírez-Grau, R.; Cabrero-Antonino, M.; García, H.; et al. MXene dots as photocatalysts for CO₂ hydrogenation. Appl. Catal. B: Environ. 2024, 341, 123316.
43.
Zhang, N.; Hong, Y.; Yazdanparast, S.; et al. Superior structural, elastic and electronic properties of 2D titanium nitride MXenes over carbide MXenes: A comprehensive first principles study. 2d Mater. 2018, 5, 045004.
44.
Mego, K.; Accardo, E.; Ruiz-Campos, P.; et al. CsPbBr₃ nanocrystals supported on a partially oxidized Ti₂N MXene for photothermal CO₂ conversion. Mater. Adv. 2026, 7, 2465–2480.
45.
Cai, Y.S.; Chen, J.Q.; Su, P.; et al. Atomically precise metal nanoclusters combine with MXene towards solar CO₂ conversion. Chem. Sci. 2024, 15, 13495–13505.
46.
Zhang, L.; Zhang, J.; Yu, J.; et al. Charge-transfer dynamics in S-scheme photocatalyst. Nat. Rev. Chem. 2025, 9, 328–342.
47.
Su, T.; Hood, Z.D.; Naguib, M.; et al. 2D/2D heterojunction of Ti₃C₂/gC₃N₄ nanosheets for enhanced photocatalytic hydrogen evolution. Nanoscale 2019, 11, 8138–8149.
48.
Cabrero-Antonino, M.; Uscategui-Linares, A.; Ramírez-Grau, R.; et al. 2D/2D MOF/MXene schottky junction: Prolonged carrier lifetime and enhanced hydrogen evolution efficiency. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2025, 64, e202503860.
49.
Qiang, W.; Qu, X.; Chen, C.; et al. Ti₃C₂ MXene derived (001) TiO₂/Ti₃C₂ heterojunctions for enhanced visible-light photocatalytic degradation of tetracycline. Mater. Today Commun. 2022, 33, 104216.
50.
Low, J.; Zhang, L.; Tong, T.; et al. TiO₂/MXene Ti₃C₂ composite with excellent photocatalytic CO₂ reduction activity. J. Catal. 2018, 361, 255–266.
51.
He, F.; Zhu, B.; Cheng, B.; et al. 2D/2D/0D TiO₂/C₃N₄/Ti₃C₂ MXene composite S-scheme photocatalyst with enhanced CO₂ reduction activity. Appl. Catal. B Environ. 2020, 272, 119006.
52.
Quyen, V.T.; Ha, L.T.T.; Thanh, D.M.; et al. Advanced synthesis of MXene-derived nanoflower-shaped TiO₂@Ti₃C₂ heterojunction to enhance photocatalytic degradation of Rhodamine B. Environ. Technol. Innov. 2021, 21, 101286.
53.
Hieu, V.Q.; Lam, T.C.; Khan, A.; et al. TiO₂/Ti₃C₂/g-C₃N₄ ternary heterojunction for photocatalytic hydrogen evolution. Chemosphere 2021, 285, 131429.
54.
Xu, F.; Mei, W.; Hu, P.; et al. Spatially Engineered Ternary Schottky/S-Scheme Heterojunctions for Artificial Photosynthesis. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2025, 64, e202513364.
55.
Mei, W.; Zhao, F.; Xu, K.; et al. Schottky−Defect–Photothermal Coupling in Nb₂C/Nb₂O_5−xHeterostructures for Enhanced CO₂ Photoreduction. ACS Catal. 2026, 16, 5115–5127.
56.
Liu, H.; Shi, L.; Zhang, Q.; et al. Photothermal catalysts for hydrogenation reactions. Chem. Commun. 2021, 57, 1279–1294.
57.
Anouar, A.; Dhakshinamoorthy, A.; Xu, F.; et al. Engineering MXenes for Thermal and Photothermal Catalysis. Chem. Rev. 2026, 126, 3664–3729.
58.
Li, R.; Zhang, L.; Shi, L.; et al. MXene Ti₃C₂: An effective 2D light-to-heat conversion material. ACS Nano 2017, 11, 3752–3759.
59.
Guzelturk, B.; Kamysbayev, V.; Wang, D.; et al. Understanding and controlling photothermal responses in MXenes. Nano Lett. 2023, 23, 2677–2686.
60.
Tian, L.; Xu, F.; Sastre, G.; et al. Engineering MXene surfaces and heterostructure interfaces for efficient heterogeneous catalysis. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2026, 55, 4244–4302. https://doi.org/10.1039/D5CS00376H.
61.
Kruger, D.D.; Cabrero-Antonino, M.; Osella, S.; et al. Surface-State–Regulated Product Distribution in Photothermal CO₂ Hydrogenation over MXene-Based S-Scheme Catalyst. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2026, e8425918.

Scilight Press

Author Information

Abstract

Graphical Abstract

Keywords

References

About Scilight

Journals

Publishing Policies

Contact Us