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2609005121
  • Open Access
  • Review

Two-Photon Polymerization-Enabled Microrobots: Fabrication, Actuation, and Biomedical Applications

  • Junliang Chen 1,   
  • Dongdong Jin 2,*,   
  • Chen Xin 3,   
  • Xing Ma 2,*,   
  • Xin Song 1,*

Received: 23 Jun 2026 | Revised: 24 Jul 2026 | Accepted: 04 Sep 2026 | Published: 15 Sep 2026

Abstract

Microrobots are being explored for biomedical tasks in complex and confined in vivo environments. Clinical translation, however, remains limited by manufacturing bottlenecks, including the submicron integration of heterogeneous functional materials. Two-photon polymerization (TPP) addresses part of this challenge by enabling free-form three-dimensional fabrication and the integration of multiple functional materials, including stimulus-responsive formulations. When printed structures undergo time-dependent changes in response to external stimuli, the process is commonly termed 4D microprinting. This review connects the fabrication principles of TPP-enabled microrobots with their actuation strategies and emerging biomedical applications. We examine innovations in materials science, including programmable hydrogels and liquid-crystal elastomers, together with structural strategies such as biomimetic topologies and 4D multi-material integration. We then evaluate magnetic, optical, acoustic and hybrid actuation strategies that control microrobots in biologically relevant settings. Finally, we discuss cross-scale applications in targeted therapeutic delivery, single-cell micromanipulation, 3D tissue engineering, deep-tissue imaging, in vivo fabrication and long-term implantation. Together, these studies define the current capabilities of TPP-enabled microrobots and the remaining constraints in fabrication throughput, material compatibility, biocompatibility and autonomous operation.

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Chen, J.; Jin, D.; Xin, C.; Ma, X.; Song, X. Two-Photon Polymerization-Enabled Microrobots: Fabrication, Actuation, and Biomedical Applications. Advanced Mechatronics 2026, 1 (1), 5.
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