Technology-Mediated Individual and Collaborative L2 Academic Writing on Learner Autonomy

Ziyu Wang; Qianhao Chen; Wilson Cheong Hin Hong

doi:10.61414/h26xme36

Abstract

This study investigates the impact of individual and collaborative writing approaches on learner autonomy within technology-mediated L2 academic writing contexts. Through thematic analysis of semi-structured interviews conducted with 20 English-major undergraduate students in Macau, we examined how these writing modes—and their intersection with digital tools—influence key dimensions of autonomy: goal setting, self-monitoring, and self-evaluation. Our findings reveal that collaborative writing fostered greater peer support, digital skill complementarity, and reduced writing anxiety. Conversely, individual writing facilitated consistent planning and eliminated interpersonal stress, with students increasingly relying on AI as a “digital peer” for ideation and advanced software for digital workflow management. Notably, while collaborative students demonstrated enhanced peer-mediated self-evaluation, individual writers exhibited autonomy through strategic technological restraint and tech-mediated troubleshooting. A significant finding was the emergence of “complementary autonomy”, where alternating between individual and collaborative approaches—augmented by human-machine interaction—enhanced overall autonomy development more effectively than exclusive reliance on either mode. This study extends sociocultural theory by demonstrating that the quality of interaction—whether with human peers or digital tools—determines its value for autonomy development. The findings challenge dichotomous conceptualizations of learner autonomy, suggesting instead a dynamic interplay between personal agency, social interdependence, and technological mediation. Pedagogical implications include offering students’ flexibility in choosing writing modes while providing appropriate scaffolding for both digital literacy and human collaboration. This research contributes to a more refined understanding of how writing instruction can be designed to foster digital learner autonomy in modern L2 academic contexts.

References

1.
Alastuey, M. C. B., & de Lizarrondo Larumbe, P. M. (2017). Collaborative writing in the EFL secondary education classroom: Comparing triad, pair and individual work. Huarte de San Juan. Filología y Didáctica de la Lengua, 17, 254–275. https://revista-hsj-filologia.unavarra.es/hsj-Filologia/article/view/3017.
2.
Azam, A. (2024). The role of pairwork in enhancing speaking skills and learner autonomy among Bangladeshi tertiary level students. International Journal of English Language Studies, 6(3), 61–69. https://doi.org/10.32996/ijels.2024.6.3.9.
3.
Balcikanli, C. (2010). Learner autonomy in language learning: Student teachers’ beliefs. Australian Journal of Teacher Education (Online), 35(1), 90–103. https://search.informit.org/doi/10.3316/ielapa.850642220019550.
4.
Borg, W. R., & Gall, M. D. (1983). Educational research (4th ed.). Longman.
5.
Burt, M., Peyton, J. K., & Adams, R. (2003). Reading and adult English language learners: A review of the research. National Center for ESL Literacy Education.
6.
Cotterall, S. (1995). Readiness for autonomy: Investigating learner beliefs. System, 23(2), 195–205. https://doi.org/10.1016/0346-251X(95)00008-8.
7.
Dobao, A. F. (2012). Collaborative writing tasks in the L2 classroom: Comparing group, pair, and individual work. Journal of Second Language Writing, 21(1), 40–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2011.12.002.
8.
Geary, W. T. (1998, April). From dependence toward independence via interdependence. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Diego, CA, USA.
9.
Hale, G., Taylor, C., Bridgeman, B., Carson, J., Kroll, B., & Kantor, R. (1995). A study of writing tasks assigned in academic degree programs. ETS Research Report Series, 1995(2), i–61. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2333-8504.1995.tb01678.x.
10.
Harmer, J. (2008). How to teach English. Oxford University Press.
11.
Head, A., Xu, Y., & Wang, J. (2014). ToneWars: Connecting language learners and native speakers through collaborative mobile games. In S. Trausan-Matu, K. E. Boyer, M. Crosby, & K. Panourgia (Eds.), Intelligent tutoring systems, ITS 2014 (Vol. 8474, pp. 388–393). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-07221-0_46.
12.
Holec, H. (1981). Autonomy and foreign language learning. Pergamon Press.
13.
Hong, W. C. H. (2021). Improving English as a foreign language learners’ writing using a minimal grammar approach of teaching dependent clauses: A case study of Macao secondary school students. In B. Reynolds, & M. F. Teng (Eds.), Innovative approaches in teaching English writing to Chinese speakers (pp. 67–90). De Gruyter Mouton. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781501512643-004.
14.
Hong, W. C. H. (2023). The impact of ChatGPT on foreign language teaching and learning: Opportunities in education and research. Journal of Educational Technology and Innovation, 5(1), 37–45. https://doi.org/10.61414/jeti.v5i1.103.
15.
Hong, W. C. H. (2026). Reflecting on three years of generative AI in higher education: Successes, struggles, and solutions. Artificial Intelligence Advances in Education, 1(1), 29–39. https://aiaie.scs-journals.com/index.php/aiaie/article/view/916.
16.
Hong, W. C. H., & Litwin, A. (2025). From human guidance to digital assistance: EFL thesis-writing students’ experiences of support before and after the AI revolution. Journal of Educational Technology and Innovation, 7(3), 21–34. https://doi.org/10.61414/a3wy7546.
17.
Ivanič, R., & Simpson, J. (2014). Who’s who in academic writing? In Critical language awareness (pp. 141–173). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315845661-14.
18.
Karatsareas, P. (2022). Semi-structured interviews. In R. Kircher & L. Zipp (Eds.), Research methods in language attitudes (pp. 99–113). Cambridge University Press.
19.
Kaweera, C., Yawiloeng, R., & Tachom, K. (2019). Individual, pair and group writing activity: A case study of undergraduate EFL student writing. English Language Teaching, 12(10), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v12n10p1.
20.
Leeming, P. (2024). The influence of small groups on leader stability and task engagement in the language classroom. Language Teaching Research. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/13621688241249288.
21.
Lin, Z. (2013). Capitalising on learner agency and group work in learning writing in English as a foreign language. TESOL Journal, 4(4), 721–743. https://doi.org/10.1002/tesj.60.
22.
Little, D. (2022). Language learner autonomy: Rethinking language teaching. Language Teaching, 55(1), 64–75. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444820000488.
23.
Littlewood, W. (1999). Defining and developing autonomy in East Asian contexts. Applied Linguistics, 20(1), 71–94. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/20.1.71.
24.
Liu, H., & Qi, W. (2017). Establishing learner autonomy in China’s universities through achievement presentation. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 8(3), 588–593. https://doi.org/10.17507/jltr.0803.18.
25.
Liu, M.-C., Huang, Y.-M., & Xu, Y.-H. (2018). Effects of individual versus group work on learner autonomy and emotion in digital storytelling. Educational Technology Research and Development, 66, 1009–1028. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-018-9601-2.
26.
Mahapatra, S. (2024). Impact of ChatGPT on ESL students’ academic writing skills: A mixed methods intervention study. Smart Learning Environments, 11(1), 9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40561-024-00295-9.
27.
Mickwitz, Å. (2020). Students’ writing process and the potential influence of student autonomy. Educare, 2020(2), 1–25.
28.
Mondahl, M., Razmerita, L., & Rasmussen, J. (2009, October). Social software, thinking styles, personalization and case-based foreign language learning: The quest for new pedagogical models in higher education. In 8th European Conference on eLearning 2009 (pp. 314–322). Academic Publishing.
29.
Naeem, M., Ozuem, W., Howell, K., & Ranfagni, S. (2023). A step-by-step process of thematic analysis to develop a conceptual model in qualitative research. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 22. https://doi.org/10.1177/16094069231205789.
30.
Paltridge, B. (2004). Academic writing. Language Teaching, 37(2), 87–105. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444804002216.
31.
Parnrod, U., & Darasawang, P. (2018). Group work and learning strategies by EFL students with different cognitive styles: Closing gaps for implementing cooperative learning in language classrooms. Journal of Institutional Research South East Asia, 16(1), 24–37.
32.
Sakai, S., Takagi, A., & Chu, M. P. (2008). Promoting learner autonomy: Student perceptions of responsibilities in a language classroom in East Asia. Educational Perspectives, 43(1–2), 12–27. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ912111.
33.
Şener, B., & Mede, E. (2023). Promoting learner autonomy and improving reflective thinking skills through reflective practice and collaborative learning. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 17(2), 364–379. https://doi.org/10.1080/17501229.2022.2047694.
34.
Shehadeh, A. (2011). Effects and student perceptions of collaborative writing in L2. Journal of Second Language Writing, 20(4), 286–305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2011.05.010.
35.
Shen, B., Bai, B., & Xue, W. (2020). The effects of peer assessment on learner autonomy: An empirical study in a Chinese college English writing class. Studies in Educational Evaluation, 64, 100821. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.stueduc.2019.100821.
36.
Starfield, S. (2001). “I’ll go with the group”: Rethinking “discourse community” in EAP. In J. Flowerdew, & M. Peacock (Eds.), Research perspectives on English for academic purposes (pp. 132–147). Cambridge University Press.
37.
Storch, N. (2002). Patterns of interaction in ESL pair work. Language Learning, 52(1), 119–158. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9922.00179.
38.
Sulistiyo, U., & Kamil, D. (2022). Language learning strategies and learner autonomy: The case of Indonesian tertiary EFL students. LEARN Journal: Language Education and Acquisition Research Network, 15(1), 257–281.
39.
Suwannaphima, S., & Vibulphol, J. (2023). Fostering learner autonomy of Thai lower secondary school students in project-based English instruction. LEARN Journal: Language Education and Acquisition Research Network, 16(2), 421–439. https://so04.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/LEARN/article/view/266946.
40.
Tanyeli Zeki, N., & Kuter, S. (2018). Impact of collaborative and reflective writing activities on students’ autonomy in writing. Quality & Quantity, 52, 343–360. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-017-0615-3.
41.
Thorne, S. L., & Lantolf, J. P. (2006). A linguistics of communicative activity. In S. Makoni, & A. Pennycook (Eds.), Disinventing and Reconstituting Languages (pp. 170–195). Multilingual Matters & Channel View Publications. https://doi.org/10.2307/jj.27939678.11.
42.
Timothy, A., Morah, P., Uguma, V., Obiekezie, E., Ironbar, V., & Eba, M. (2023). Using the collaborative learning approach to enhance reading competence, interest, autonomy and reduce reading anxiety in secondary school children. Ianna Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, 5(1), 109–123.
43.
Trim, J. L. M. (1978). Some possible lines of development of an overall structure for a European unit/credit scheme for foreign language learning by adults. Council of Europe.
44.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Harvard University Press.
45.
Wang, L., & Ren, B. (2024). Enhancing academic writing in a linguistics course with generative AI: An empirical study in a higher education institution in Hong Kong. Education Sciences, 14(12), 1329. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci14121329.
46.
Wigglesworth, G., & Storch, N. (2012). What role for collaboration in writing and writing feedback? Journal of Second Language Writing, 21(3), 153–173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2012.09.005.
47.
Wijaya, K. F. (2021). Collaborative and problem-based learning in promoting Indonesian EFL learners’ learning autonomy. Polyglot: Jurnal Ilmiah, 17(2), 191–211. https://doi.org/10.19166/pji.v17i2.3590.
48.
Winne, P. H. (2001). Self-regulated learning viewed from models of information processing. In B. J. Zimmerman, & D. H. Schunk (Eds.), Self-regulated learning and academic achievement: Theoretical perspectives (pp. 153–189). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
49.
Woolf, N. H., & Silver, C. (2017). Qualitative analysis using NVivo: The five-level QDA^® method. Routledge.
50.
Xu, X., Hong, W. C. H., Zhang, Y., Jiang, H., & Liu, J. (2024). Learning paths design in personal learning environments: The impact on postgraduates’ cognitive achievements and satisfaction. Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 61(4), 748–763. https://doi.org/10.1080/14703297.2023.2189603.
51.
Xu, X., Li, Z., Hong, W. C. H., Xu, X., & Zhang, Y. (2024). Effects and side effects of personal learning environments and personalized learning in formal education. Education and Information Technologies, 29(15), 20729–20756. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-024-12685-0.
52.
Xu, X., Su, Y., Hong, W. C. H., Zhang, Y., & Zhuang, T. (2024). The impact of a personal learning environment on Chinese postgraduates’ online self-regulated learning skills / Impacto de un Entorno Personal de Aprendizaje en las aptitudes de aprendizaje autorregulado en línea de estudiantes de posgrado en China. Journal for the Study of Education and Development: Infancia y Aprendizaje, 47(1), 173–205. https://doi.org/10.1177/02103702231225382.
53.
Zabihi, R., & Bayan, M. (2020). Are two voices better than one? Comparing aspects of text quality and authorial voice in paired and independent L2 writing. Written Communication, 37(4), 512–535. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741088320939542.
54.
Zhang, H., Xu, X., Lei, V. N. L., Hong, W. C. H., & Jie, W. (2025). Academic writing challenges and supports for early-stage Chinese postgraduates: A mixed-methods study on teaching-research integration, supervisor engagement, and self-efficacy. PLoS ONE, 20(2), e0317470. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0317470.

Scilight Press

Author Information

Abstract

Keywords

References

About Scilight

Journals

Publishing Policies

Contact Us